The effects of different silicas on arachidonic acid metabolism in alveolar macrophages

Arachidonic Acid Metabolism as a Potential Mediator of Cardiac Fibrosis Associated with Inflammation

An increase in left ventricular collagen (cardiac fibrosis) is a detrimental process that adversely affects heart function. Strong evidence implicates the infiltration of inflammatory cells as a critical part of the process resulting in cardiac fibrosis. Inflammatory cells are capable of releasing arachidonic acid, which may be further metabolized by cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase, and cytochrome P450 monooxygenase enzymes to biologically active products, including PGs, leukotrienes, epoxyeicosatrienoic acids, and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids. Some of these products have profibrotic properties and may represent a pathway by which inflammatory cells initiate and mediate the development of cardiac fibrosis. In this study, we critically review the current literature on the potential link between this pathway and cardiac fibrosis.

Oxytocin stimulates prostaglandin F2alpha secretion from porcine endometrial cells through activation of calcium-dependent protein kinase C

The mechanism for oxytocin's (OT) stimulation of PGF2alpha secretion from porcine endometrium is not clear, but is thought to involve mobilization of intracellular Ca2+ and subsequent activation of protein kinase C (PKC). This study determined: (1) if mobilization of inositol trisphosphate-sensitive Ca2+ by thapsigargin or activation of PKC by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) could stimulate PGF2alpha release from luminal epithelial, glandular epithelial and stromal cells of porcine endometrium and (2) if inhibitors of various PKC isotypes could attenuate the ability of OT, thapsigargin and PMA to stimulate PGF2alpha secretion from these cells. Thapsigargin and PMA each stimulated (P < 0.01) PGF2alpha secretion from all three endometrial cell types examined. However, the effects of thapsigargin and PMA were synergistic (P < 0.05) only in stromal cells. Three protein kinase C inhibitors (i.e. Gö6976, Gö6983 and Ro-31-8220) differentially attenuated (P < 0.05) the ability of OT, thapsigargin and PMA to stimulate PGF2alpha release. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that OT mobilizes Ca2+ to activate a Ca2+-dependent PKC pathway to promote PGF2alpha secretion from porcine endometrial cells. The differing pattern of response to isotype-specific inhibitors of PKC among cell types suggests that distinct PKC isoforms are differentially expressed in luminal epithelial, glandular epithelial and stromal cells.

In vivo salicylate hydroxylation: a potential biomarker for assessing acute ozone exposure and effects in humans

Ozone is known to yield hydroxyl radical, which may contribute to ozone-mediated lung injury. In the presence of hydroxyl radical, salicylate is hydroxylated to form 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHBA). There is no evidence of enzymatic formation of 2,3-DHBA. We hypothesized that salicylate hydroxylation might be used as a biomarker indicating human exposure to ozone. Healthy, nonsmoking volunteers, 18 to 34 yr of age, were given acetylsalicylic acid (975 mg) or placebo orally 0.5 h before an exposure. Subjects were exposed to ozone (0.12 or 0.4 ppm) or filtered air in an environmental chamber for 2 h, while performing intermittent exercise. Results indicate significant decrements in FVC, FEV1.0, forced expiratory flows at 50% and 75% of FVC, and peak expiratory flow rate, and an increase in airway resistance, after exposure to 0.4 ppm ozone in comparison with air control (p < 0.05). Exposure to 0.4 ppm ozone also resulted in increased symptom numbers and severity (p < 0.05). When subjects were exposed to 0.12 ppm ozone, changes of pulmonary function and symptoms reported were minimal. Plasma concentration of 2,3-DHBA was significantly increased after exposure to 0.12 and 0.4 ppm ozone in comparison with air control (p < 0.05). There was a significant correlation between ozone-induced changes of pulmonary function and normalized salicylate hydroxylation (p < 0.05). The results indicate that exposure to ozone can initiate in vivo production of hydroxyl radical, a potent reactive agent. Salicylate hydroxylation may then serve as a sensitive dosimetric biomarker for ozone exposure, even at subclinical ozone exposure levels.

The role of phosphoinositide-derived second messengers in oxytocin-stimulated prostaglandin F2 alpha release from endometrium of pigs

The mechanism for prostaglandin (PG) F2 alpha release from pig endometrium after oxytocin (OT) treatment is unknown. OT may rapidly stimulate inositol (1,4,5)-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG) formation, consistent with the concept of rapid activation of a second-messenger system. In support of this hypothesis, endometrial IP3 levels were increased (P < 0.05) within 0.5 min after treatment with 0.1 microM OT. In contrast, increased DAG formation was not detected after treatment with OT. However, similar to the stimulation of endometrial PGF2 alpha secretion observed after OT treatment (P < 0.001), PGF2 alpha release was increased (P < 0.01) after treatment with phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), which mimics DAG activation of protein kinase C. Further, stimulation of endometrial PGF2 alpha secretion did not result from cell death induced by PMA or OT because lactate dehydrogenase, a cytosolic marker of cellular integrity, did not leak into the medium after PMA or OT treatment. In contrast, 0.5% saponin (positive control for cell death and concomitant release of lactate dehydrogenase) increased PGF2 alpha secretion (P < 0.05) and lactate dehydrogenase release (P < 0.001). These results indicate that OT induces endometrial IP3 production in a rapid manner indicative of a second-messenger system. The finding that increased DAG was not also detected after OT treatment may reflect rapid metabolism or compartmentalized production of DAG involved in the second-messenger stimulation of phospholipase C. The high background of DAG used in the biosynthesis of cellular lipids would obscure the rather small spatially localized changes in DAG levels resulting from the activation of phospholipase C. The finding that DAG was present at approximately 10 to 20-fold higher levels than IP3 in resting cells was consistent with this conclusion.

Silica increases tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production, in part, by upregulating the TNF promoter

Silica causes release of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) from mononuclear phagocytes. One hypothesis is that silica increases TNF production, in part, by upregulating the TNF gene. To evaluate this hypothesis, THP-1 cells (a myelomonocytic cell line) were exposed to various amounts of silica and then the TNF gene transcription was evaluated. In this study silica caused a dose-dependent increase in TNF mRNA and the peak response occurred at 3 h following stimulation. A transient transfection assay also showed that silica upregulated expression of a TNF CAT construct in THP-1 cells. Furthermore, a nuclear run-on assay demonstrated that silica particles induce increased TNF gene transcription in exposed cells. THP-1 cells cultured for various periods of time in the presence of silica released TNF into the cell supernatants. These studies show that silica can upregulate the TNF gene, which results in the release of TNF protein from the cells.

Characterization of alveolar macrophage eicosanoid production in a non-human primate model of mineral dust exposure

The relative activation of eicosanoid production which results from the exposure of the alveolar macrophage (AM) to mineral dusts is thought to be a key factor in the pathophysiology of occupational lung disease. We compared in vitro basal and silica-stimulated production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) by AM from normal humans and non-human primates (Macaca nemestrina). In addition, we instilled mineral dusts directly into one lung of the non-human primate and evaluated AM eicosanoid production at two week intervals following dust instillation. Unstimulated AM from humans produce more PGE2 and TXA2 than do AM from M. nemestrina. However, in vitro exposure of AM from both species to silica dust produced a qualitatively similar increase in TXA2 production accompanied by no change in PGE2 production. Sequential analysis of AM eicosanoid production following a single bolus exposure to bituminous or anthracite coal dusts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) dust or crystalline silica showed marked variability among individual non-human primates in qualitative and quantitative aspects of dust-induced eicosanoid production. However, the rank order of potency of the different dusts (silica > anthracite > bituminous) correlated with epidemiological evidence relating the type of dust mined to the incidence of pneumoconiosis. These studies suggest that the non-human primate may serve as a model for the study of both the role of eicosanoids in the etiology of dust-induced occupational lung disease and the biochemical basis for individual variability in the response of lung cells to mineral dust exposure.

Mechanisms of hydroxyl free radical-induced cellular injury and calcium overloading in alveolar macrophages

Excessive production of reactive oxygen radicals by alveolar macrophages is proposed to play an important role in oxidative lung injury. A major product oxygen radical formation is the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (.OH) generated via a biologic Fenton reaction. In addition to its known ability to induce lipid peroxidation, recent studies have suggested that the .OH may exert its cytotoxic effect through the alteration of [Ca2+]i homeostasis. To test this potential mechanism as well as to investigate the relationship between .OH and Ca2+ overloading in cytotoxic injury, isolated rat alveolar macrophages were exposed to externally generated radical system, H2O2 (0.01 to 1 mM) and Fe2+ (1 mM) and their [Ca2+]i levels and cell injury were monitored using quantitative fluorescence microscopy with the aid of the specific Ca2+ indicator, Fura-2, and membrane integrity indicator, propidium iodide. Electron spin resonance measurements using the spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) confirmed the production of the .OH radical by this system. Upon the addition of the radicals, the macrophages displayed a rapid initial rise in [Ca2+]i which was followed by a slower but more pronounced [Ca2+]i elevation that reached a level 3 to 5 times higher than the basal level. This process preceded cell death as evident by nuclear propidium iodide fluorescence. Depletion of extracellular Ca2+ inhibited both the [Ca2+]i response and cell injury. Preincubation of the cells with the Ca2+ channel blocker verapamil or .OH radical scavenger mannitol similarly inhibited the [Ca2+]i rise and loss of viability. Firefly luciferase assay of cellular ATP content demonstrated that the alterations in [Ca2+]i following .OH treatment preceded the depletion of ATP.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Diminished arachidonic acid metabolite release by bovine alveolar macrophages exposed to surface-modified silica

Modification of the silica surface has been shown to reduce its cytotoxicity in vitro and its fibrogenic activity in vivo. We have shown silica to be a potent stimulator of arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism in bovine alveolar macrophages (BAM). To determine the effect of surface-modified silica on AA metabolism in BAM, we exposed BAM in vitro to silica treated with aluminum lactate or polyvinylpyridine-N-oxide (PVPNO). BAM were prelabeled with [3H]AA and incubated with 3 and 5 mg of silica. Unmodified silica at these doses elicited maximal AA metabolite release from BAM. AA metabolites were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. Lactate dehydrogenase release was quantitated to determine the cytotoxicity of treated and untreated silica on BAM. Treating silica with aluminum lactate or PVPNO significantly (P less than or equal to 0.05) reduced 5-lipoxygenase metabolite release and significantly (P less than or equal to 0.05) increased cyclooxygenase metabolite release. These changes in AA metabolite release were accompanied by a significant (P less than or equal to 0.05) reduction in the cytotoxicities of the treated silicas compared with untreated silica. Our results suggest that the reduced inflammatory and fibrogenic activity of surface-modified silica may in part be due to reduced AA metabolite release from exposed macrophages.