Preparation of polymer nano- and microspheres by vinyl polymerization techniques

Modification of Collagen/Gelatin/Hydroxyethyl Cellulose-Based Materials by Addition of Herbal Extract-Loaded Microspheres Made from Gellan Gum and Xanthan Gum

Because consumers are nowadays focused on their health and appearance, natural ingredients and their novel delivery systems are one of the most developing fields of pharmacy, medicine, and cosmetics. The main goal of this study was to design, prepare, and characterize composite materials obtained by incorporation of microspheres into the porous polymer materials consisting of collagen, gelatin, and hydroxyethyl cellulose. Microspheres, based on gellan gum and xanthan gum with encapsulated Calendula officinalis flower extract, were produced by two methods: extrusion and emulsification. The release profile of the extract from both types of microspheres was compared. Then, obtained microparticles were incorporated into polymeric materials with a porous structure. This modification had an influence on porosity, density, swelling properties, mechanical properties, and stability of materials. Besides, in vitro tests were performed using mouse fibroblasts. Cell viability was assessed with the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. The obtained materials, especially with microspheres prepared by emulsion method, can be potentially helpful when designing cosmetic forms because they were made from safely for skin ingredients used in this industry and the herbal extract was successfully encapsulated into microparticles.

Preparation and Performance Evaluation of Polymeric Microspheres Used for Profile Control of Low-Permeability Reservoirs

To improve in-depth profile control in a low-permeability reservoir, polymeric microspheres were used. A distillation–precipitation polymerization method was adopted to prepare nanometer-sized polymeric microspheres, whose structure, apparent pattern, thermal endurance, particle size, hydration, and swelling capacity were tested and analyzed by a series of techniques, including infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetry, high-pressure and high-temperature rheometry, and dynamic light scattering. The prepared polymeric microspheres were copolymerization products of acrylamide, acrylic acid, and methyl methacrylate that were uniformly round with a centralized size distribution. The nanometer-sized microspheres had satisfactory hydration/swelling performance, indicating that they could act as oil displacement profile control agents. With the increase of shear rate, the apparent viscosity of the polymeric microspheres was significantly reduced, and the fluid possessed a pseudoplastic behavior. When the shear rate was 100–1000 s−1, the fluid demonstrated a Newtonian fluid behavior. After the polymeric microspheres were hydrated, the particle size distribution curve shows a normal distribution, reaching a maximum swelling size of 21.3 times that of the original microspheres. The plugging performance and deformability of the polymeric microspheres gradually enhanced with swelling time, which makes the microspheres effective pore channel plugging agents for delivering a better in-depth profile control effect in rock cores with lower permeability. The core flooding test showed that, for the heterogeneous core with a permeability of 10 μm2, polymer microspheres have good plugging effect.

A novel route for synthesis of cross-linked polystyrene copolymer beads with tunable porosity using guar and xanthan gums from bioresources as alternative synthetic suspension stabilizers

Cross-linked polymer beads with different cross-linking agent loading were prepared by carrying out cross-linking suspension copolymerization of styrene-divinylbenzene (St- DVB) monomers using guar gum (GG) and xanthan gum (XG) from bioresources as eco-friendly suspension biopolymer stabilizers in the presence of non reactive diluents. The effects of GG and XG as suspension biostabilizers on the characteristics of the styrene copolymer beads were investigated regarding thermal properties, porosity characteristics, solvent swelling ratio, and surface morphologies using TGA, DSC, XRD, SEM, BET analyses. Spherical and regular beads with smooth surface were produced and the average particle size was in the range 170-290 μm (50-80 mesh size). The porosity characteristics of the produced beads including surface area and pore volume were in range 0.45 m2/g and 32-45 ml/g, respectively. Overall, the present article provided a novel route to prepare cross-linked polystyrene copolymer beads with tunable porosity suitable for catalyst support.

A practical framework for implementing Quality by Design to the development of topical drug products: Nanosystem-based dosage forms

Skin has been increasingly recognized as an important drug administration route with topical formulations, offering a targeted approach for the treatment of several dermatological disorders. The effectiveness of this route is hampered by its natural barrier, the stratum corneum (SC), and hence, different strategies have been investigated to improve percutaneous drug transport. The design of nanodelivery systems, aiming at solving skin delivery issues, have been largely explored, due to their potential to revolutionize dermal therapies, improving therapeutic effectiveness and reducing side effects. Apart from nanosystem benefits, the fulfilment of the reproducibility requirements and quality standards still limit their industrial production. The optimization of nanosystem formulation and manufacturing process is complex, usually involving a large number of variables. Therefore, a science- and risk-oriented approach, such as Quality by Design (QbD) will provide a comprehensive and noteworthy knowledge, yielding high quality drug products without extensive regulatory burden. This review aims to set up the basis for QbD development approach, encompassing preliminary and systematic risk assessments, with critical process parameters (CPPs) and critical material attributes (CMAs) identification, of different nanosystems potentially used in dermal therapies.

Review : Biodegradable Microcapsular Drug Delivery Systems: Manufacturing Methodology, Release Control and Targeting Prospects

An overview of the subject of biodegradable microcapsular drug delivery systems is presented from a polymer chemist's viewpoint. Various polymerization and microencapsulation techniques (including emulsion polymerization, interfacial polycondensation, suspension crosslinking, coacer vation/phase separation and solvent evaporation/extraction) suitable for the preparation of biodegradable microcapsules based on proteins, polysaccharides, polyesters, polyamides, or cyanoacrylates are described. Drug release from biodegradable microcapsules is discussed, and examples are presented to illus trate how the rate of drug release can be controlled by adjusting parameters such as microcapsule size, porosity, and crosslinking. Prospects of site-specific chemotherapy by means of passive and active targeting of microcapsular drug carriers are also analyzed.

Preparation of highly cross-linked raspberry-like nano/microspheres and surface tailoring for controlled immunostimulating peptide adsorption

The surface functionalities of ionic liquid-functionalized nano/microspheres with a highly cross-linked raspberry-like structure could be well controlled by adjusting the functional chains appropriately.

Poly(ethylene glycol) microparticles produced by precipitation polymerization in aqueous solution

Methods were developed to perform precipitation photopolymerization of PEG-diacrylate. Previously, comonomers have been added to PEG when precipitation polymerization was desired. In the present method, the LCST of the PEG itself was lowered by the addition of the kosmotropic salt sodium sulfate to an aqueous solution. Typical of a precipitation polymerization, small microparticles or microspheres (1-5 μm) resulted with relatively low polydispersity. However, aggregate formation was often severe, presumably because of a lack of stabilization of the phase-separated colloids. Microparticles were also produced by copoymerization of PEG-diacrylate with acrylic acid or aminoethylmethacrylate. The comonomers affected the zeta potential of the formed microparticles but not the size. The carboxyl groups of acrylic-acid-containing PEG microparticles were activated, and scaffolds were formed by mixing with amine-containing PEG microparticles. Although the scaffolds were relatively weak, human hepatoma cells showed excellent viability when present during microparticle cross-linking.

Monodisperse Spherical Polymer Particles Prepared by Atomization

Many properties of small particle powders are significantly improved when the particle shape is spherical and the size distribution is narrow or monodisperse. By using a properly designed atomizer based on a rotating disc, perfectly spherical polymer particle with a narrow size distribution in the 20 μm to 300 μm range has been prepared directly from a polymer melt or solution. Furthermore, by using a large number of parallel discs in the same equipment, a capacity suitable for industrial scale production is possible. The polymer melt or solution is added to the rotating disk to form a thin film which is transported to the disc edge where it leaves as particles. The powder particles are formed when sufficient energy and mass is given for its formation. When the energy given by the rotation equals the energy required to create the new surface of the particle it will separate from the film and leave the disc edge. Examples such as powder coatings, chromatography media and biodegradable spheres will be shown.

Polymeric Microspheres for Medical Applications

Synthetic polymeric microspheres find application in a wide range of medical applications. Among other applications, microspheres are being used as bulking agents, embolic- or drug-delivery particles. The exact composition of the spheres varies with the application and therefore a large array of materials has been used to produce microspheres. In this review, the relation between microsphere synthesis and application is discussed for a number of microspheres that are used for different treatment strategies.

Morphology of and release behavior from porous polyurethane microspheres

A novel biomaterial application of porous microspheres is for sustained delivery of biologically active agents. Recent studies have pointed out the importance of biomaterial porosity in promoting biocompatibility and controlling release rate of active agents. The objective of this research was to investigate the effect of chain-extending agent on the porosity and release behavior of polyurethane (PU) microspheres prepared using a two-step suspension polycondensation method with methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) as the isocyanate, polyethylene glycol (PEG400) as the diol, and 1,4-butanediol as the chain-extending agent. Chain-extending agent was used to increase the ratio of hard to soft segments of the PU network, and its effect on microsphere morphology was studied with scanning electron microscopy. According to the results, porosity was significantly affected by the amount of chain-extending agent. The pore size decreased as the concentration of chain-extending agent increased from zero to 50 mole%. With further increase of chain-extending agent to 60 and 67%, PU chains became stiffer and formation of pores was inhibited. Therefore, pore morphology was significantly affected by variations in the amount of chain-extending agent. The release behavior of microspheres was investigated with diazinon as the active agent. After an initial burst, corresponding to 3% of the incorporated amount of active agent, the release rate was zero order.

The overwet phenomenon in two-component acetone-based primers containing aryl amine and carboxylic acid monomers

OBJECTIVES

The overwet phenomenon was first reported when a moist bonding technique was used with an earlier commercial version of All-Bond 2 (Bisco) that contained BPDM in primer B. This study investigated whether ultrastructural features of the overwet phenomenon could also be detected in other commercially available two-component acetone-based primers containing BPDM, PMDM and PMGDM, as well as an experimental two-component primer containing DSDM.

METHODS

Thirty 1 mm dentin discs prepared from third molars were each conditioned with 10% H3PO4 for 20 s and rinsed for 20 s. They were randomly divided into 5 groups: Group I (Bond-It, Jeneric/Pentron:PMGDM); Group II (Wet Bond, Chameleon Dental Products:PMGDM); Group III (Tenure S, Den-Mat:PMDM); Group IV (present commercial version of All-Bond 2, Bisco:BPDM) and Group V (Experimental two-component primer system containing DSDM in primer B). Following a moist bonding technique using the respective system, discs from each group were further bonded together to form three disc pairs using a chemical-cured resin. Bonded disc pairs were demineralized in EDTA and processed for TEM examination. For this ultramicroscopical study, results such as the features of the overwet phenomenon were analyzed by visual inspection of the specimens in each group (n = 12).

RESULTS

Isolated blister-like spaces of variable dimensions were observed within the primer layer in all groups and possessed the following characteristics: 1) a layer of resin-impregnated dentin was always present along the base of the primary blister; 2) surface primer globules, sometimes containing secondary blisters, were identified within these primary blisters; 3) dentinal tubules within the blister-like spaces were not completely sealed; 4) primer globules were circumscribed by a halo of fine kinked strands of material.

SIGNIFICANCE

Although the technique of moist bonding is based on valid biological principles, incorporation of resin monomers that are immiscible with water rendered the application of current two-component, acetone-based primers very technique-sensitive in terms of tubular seal, when used on moist, acid-conditioned dentin. Further studies should be directed at elimination of this type of oil-in-water (O/W) "macroemulsion" formation through optimal micellar solubilization of these resin monomers in water.

Synthesis and inverse emulsion polymerization of aminated acrylamidodextran

A chemically modified form of dextran was prepared, having a polymerizable moiety (acrylamide) and a reactive functional group (primary amine). Dextran was activated with 4-nitrophenyl-chloroformate (24 mol per polysaccharide, 9.8 mol per 100 glucose residues); 9.8% glucose residues were converted to aliphatic carbonates and 5.2% were converted to cyclic carbonates. The activated dextran was coupled with trityldiaminoethane (8 mol per 100 glucose residues), reactivated with 4-nitrophenylchloroformate, then coupled with acryloamidodiaminohexane (6.8 mol per 100 glucose residues). The trityl group was removed by hydrolysis with trifluoroacetic acid to yield the required aminated acryloamidodextran. The modified dextran was shown to be polymerizable by inverse emulsion polymerization. Submicron particles were successfully prepared, containing functional amine groups suitable for preparing drug conjugates or for modifying the surface properties of this biomaterial.

Preparation of microspheres and microcapsules by interfacial polycondensation techniques

A methodological review of the production of microspheres/microcapsules by interfacial polycondensation is presented and the mechanisms of particle and capsule formation are discussed. Procedures for interfacial polycondensation employed for the preparation of microspheres/microcapsules involve the polycondensation of two complementary monomers in a two phase suspension system. Each of the two complementary monomers resides largely in one of the two immiscible phases in the suspension system. The resulting polycondensate, which is formed at or on one side of the interface, may, or may not, be soluble in the droplet phase. If the polymer is soluble in the droplets, particulate microspheres or monolithic microcapsules are formed, i.e. particle forming interfacial polycondensation. If the polymer is insoluble in the droplets, it forms a membrane around them, and the droplets are thus individually encapsulated by the polymer. This leads to the formation of capsular microspheres or reservoir microcapsules, and hence capsule forming interfacial polycondensation. A major example of particle forming interfacial polycondensation is that of phosgene with bisphenol A recently developed for the production of polycarbonate resins in particle form. Capsule forming interfacial polycondensation is widely used to prepare polyamide (nylon) microcapsules containing proteins, pharmaceuticals, etc.

Preparation of nano- and microspheres by polycondensation techniques

Particle-forming polycondensation techniques can be divided into two main categories, namely normal polycondensation and interfacial polycondensation. Various normal polycondensation procedures employed for the preparation of nano- and microspheres are covered by this review, and are described under suspension polycondensation, dispersion polycondensation and precipitation polycondensation. Among these, suspension polycondensation procedures are generally applicable for the preparation of both nano- and microspheres. They are employed for the production of industrially important polycondensates such as phenolics, polyesters and polyurethanes, as well as for novel polymeric materials such as polycyclodextrins, mercury-binding polymercaptals, and polyurea microcapsules. Dispersion polycondensation leads to the formation of monodisperse nanoparticles, but it is not widely employed. Precipitation polycondensation produces non-spherical and polydisperse particles, and it is useful only if low molecular weights of the polymer and polydispersity of the particles do not adversely affect the intended application of the product.