Study on polyamide microcapsules containing oily liquids

Synthesis of Polyamide-Based Microcapsules via Interfacial Polymerization: Effect of Key Process Parameters

Polyamide microcapsules have gathered significant research interest during the past years due to their good barrier properties; however, the potential of their application is limited due to the fragility of the polymeric membrane. Fully aliphatic polyamide microcapsules (PA MCs) were herein prepared from ethylene diamine and sebacoyl chloride via interfacial polymerization, and the effect of key encapsulation parameters, i.e., monomers ratio, core solvent, stirring rate and time during the polymerization step, were examined concerning attainable process yield and microcapsule properties (shell molecular weight and thermal properties, MC size and morphology). The process yield was found to be mainly influenced by the nature of the organic solvent, which was correlated to the diffusion potential of the diamine from the aqueous phase to the organic core through the polyamide membrane. Thus, spherical microcapsules with a size between 14 and 90 μm and a yield of 33% were prepared by using toluene as core solvent. Milder stirring during the polymerization step led to an improved microcapsule morphology; yet, the substantial improvement of mechanical properties remains a challenge.

Preparation of robust polyamide microcapsules by interfacial polycondensation of p-phenylenediamine and sebacoyl chloride and plasticization with oleic acid

Microcapsules produced by interfacial polycondensation of p-phenylenediamine (PPD) and sebacoyl chloride (SC) were studied. The products were characterized in terms of morphology, mean diameter and effectiveness of dodecane encapsulation. The use of Tween 20 as dispersion stabilizer, in comparison with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), reduced considerably the mean diameter of the microcapsules and originated smoother wall surfaces. When compared to ethylenediamine (EDA), microcapsules produced with PPD monomer were more rigid and brittle, prone to fracture during processing and ineffective retention of the core liquid. The use of diethylenetriamine (DETA) cross-linker in combination with PPD did not decrease capsule fragility. On the other hand, addition of a small fraction of oleic acid to the organic phase remarkably improved wall toughness and lead to successful encapsulation of the core-oil. Oleic acid is believed to act as a plasticizer. Its incorporation in the polymeric wall was demonstrated by FTIR and (1)H-NMR.

Polyamide microcapsules containing jojoba oil prepared by inter-facial polymerization

Jojoba oil containing polyamide microcapsules having diameter of approximately 5 microm were prepared by inter-facial polycondensation by direct method (oil-in-water). Qualitative effects of both the formulation and the process parameters on microcapsules characteristics were investigated by SEM observations. Morphological analysis showed the dependence of the external membrane compactness on the chemical nature of the water-soluble polyamine and the oil-soluble acid polychloride: 1,6-hexamethylenediamine (HMDA) and terephthaloyl dichloride (TDC) were found to favour the production of smooth and dense surfaces. The use of ultrasonic irradiations during the dispersion step to get a further reduction of microcapsules size was also evaluated.

Microencapsulation of oils using sodium alginate

The feasibility of encapsulating wheatgerm oil and evening primrose oil using sodium alginate by the emulsification method was explored in this study. It is based on the chemical reaction between the water-soluble sodium alginate and polyvalent cation, calcium, to form the water-insoluble alginate. The factors investigated were the physical appearance of the microspheres, the amount of oil that could be encapsulated, the flow property, size distribution and mean size of the microspheres produced. Encapsulation efficiency and oil content of wheatgerm oil increased with an increase in oil load. The mean size of the microspheres increased sharply at a high oil load of 250% w/w. Photographs of microspheres taken showed that the microspheres were larger, spherical and had more vesicles within, as oil load increased. Encapsulation efficiency of evening primrose oil microspheres was similar to wheatgerm oil microspheres at the respective oil loads of 50, 250 and 350% w/w. The emulsification method developed was successfully applied to wheatgerm oil, a fixed oil, with a maximum encapsulation efficiency of approximately 88%. It was satisfactory for evening primrose oil, which also belongs to the family of fixed oils.

Effect of primary emulsions on microsphere size and protein-loading in the double emulsion process

Incorporation of a protein drug in microspheres made of a hydrophobic polymer is commonly achieved via double liquid-liquid emulsification (w/o/w) or by dispersing a powdered protein in a polymer solution followed by liquid-liquid emulsification (s/o/w). This study focused on the effect of the first operating step in both processes on the size and protein-loading of the microspheres. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was used as the model protein and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) was used as the model polymer. The w/o emulsion was characterized based on the degree of emulsion fineness which was controlled using rotor/stator homogenization. The s/o emulsion was characterized based on protein powder size and shape. Protein powders of different sizes and shapes were produced using different powder preparation methods. In both emulsification processes, the second operating step which produced the microspheres was conducted in either a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) or a static mixer. The size of the microspheres thus prepared was found to increase with increasing size of the protein powder in the s/o/w system but increase with decreasing size of the liquid emulsion droplets in the w/o/w system. Empirical correlations can accurately predict the size of the microspheres if the size of w/o emulsion droplets and protein powder is 10 x less than the microsphere size. Protein loading in the microspheres decreased with respect to increases in w/o emulsion droplet size or in protein powder size. We propose that these phenomena are attributed to two mechanisms, fragmentation along the weak routes in the w/o/w system and particle redistribution as the result of terminal velocity in the s/o/w system. The role of protein powder shape was not significant until the protein powder size exceeded 5 microns. Irregular-shaped protein powders resulted in lower encapsulation efficiency than spherical-shaped protein powders.

Effect of operation variables and monomers on the properties of polyamide microcapsules

Oil containing microcapsules were prepared by using phthaloyl dichloride as an oil-soluble monomer and diethylene triamine (DETA) as a water-soluble monomer. The diameter of the microcapsules decreased and their distribution became narrower and sharper as the emulsifying time was increased within the initial period of 45 s, beyond which no appreciable changes in the diameter and its distribution were observed. Once DETA was introduced into the aqueous solution to initiate the interfacial polycondensation reaction, reducing the stirring speed diminished the formation of the membrane fragments, but resulted in an increase in the microcapsule diameter. This indicates that the strength of the initial membrane is not strong enough to prevent the microcapsules from coalescing. Raising the volume fraction of the dispersed phase led to a larger diameter and a wider distribution of the microcapsules. When ortho-, meta- or para-phthaloyl dichloride was used as the oil-soluble monomer, both the diameter and the zeta-potential of the microcapsules decreased in the order: ortho-->meta-->para-, indicating that the steric effect of the monomers plays an important role in the microencapsulation process.