PEGylated nanostructured lipid carriers (PEG–NLC) as a novel drug delivery system for biochanin A

Quality-by-Design-Driven Nanostructured Lipid Scaffold of Apixaban: Optimization, Characterization, and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

Apixaban, an anticoagulant, is limited in its efficacy due to poor solubility, low bioavailability, and extensive metabolism. This study investigates the application of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) to enhance the bioavailability of Apixaban. NLCs were prepared using the high-pressure homogenization method. The influence of independent variables, viz., the amount of Tween 80, HPH pressure, and the number of HPH cycles, were studied using a 23 factorial design. The average particle size, PDI, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of the optimized NLCs were found to be 232 ± 23 nm, with 0.514 ± 0.13 PDI and zeta potential of about -21.9 ± 2.1 mV, respectively. Additionally, concerning the thermal and crystallographic properties of the drug, the NLCs showed drug entrapment without altering its potency. The in-vitro drug release studies revealed an immediate release pattern, followed by sustained release for up to 48 h. In-vivo pharmacokinetic experiments demonstrated that Apixaban-loaded NLCs exhibited higher values of t1/2 (27.76 ± 1.18 h), AUC0-∞ (19,568.7 ± 1067.6 ng·h/mL), and Cmax (585.3 ± 87.6 ng/mL) compared to free drugs, indicating improved bioavailability. Moreover, a decrease in the elimination rate constant (Kel) reflected the sustained effect of Apixaban with NLCs. NLCs offer improved oral absorption rates and enhanced therapeutic impact compared to free drugs, potentially reducing dose frequency and improving patient outcomes.

Harnessing Therapeutic Potentials of Biochanin A in Neurological Disorders: Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Overview

Biochanin A, an isoflavone flavonoid with estrogenic activity, is naturally found in red clover and other legumes. It possesses a wide range of pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, neuroprotective, and anticancer effects. In recent years, a growing body of pre-clinical research has focused on exploring the therapeutic potential of biochanin A in various neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, ischemic brain injury, gliomas, and neurotoxicity. This comprehensive review aims to shed light on the underlying molecular mechanisms that contribute to the neuroprotective role of biochanin A based on previous pre-clinical studies. Furthermore, it provides a detailed overview of the protective effects of biochanin A in diverse neurological disorders. The review also addresses the limitations associated with biochanin A administration and discusses different approaches employed to overcome these challenges. Finally, it highlights the future opportunities for translating biochanin A from pre-clinical research to clinical studies while also considering its commercial viability as a dietary supplement or a potential treatment for various diseases.

Harnessing role of sesamol and its nanoformulations against neurodegenerative diseases

Sesamol is a lignan of sesame seeds and a natural phenolic molecule that has emerged as a useful medical agent. Sesamol is a non-toxic phytoconstituent, which exerts certain valuable effects in the management of cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), etc. Sesamol is known to depict its neuroprotective role by various mechanisms, such as metabolic regulators, action on oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, etc. However, its poor oral bioavailability, rapid excretion (as conjugates), and susceptibility to gastric irritation/toxicity (particularly in rats' forestomach) may restrict its effectiveness. To overcome the associated limitations, novel drug delivery system-based formulations of sesamol are emerging and being researched extensively. These can conjugate with sesamol and enhance the bioavailability and solubility of free sesamol, along with delivery at the target site. In this review, we have summarized various research works highlighting the role of sesamol on various NDs, including Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease. Moreover, the formulation strategies and neuroprotective role of sesamol-based nano-formulations have also been discussed.

Influence of Surface-Modification via PEGylation or Chitosanization of Lipidic Nanocarriers on In Vivo Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Profiles of Apixaban

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) have been proven to significantly improve the bioavailability and efficacy of many drugs; however, they still have many limitations. These limitations could hinder their potential for enhancing the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs and, therefore, require further amendments. From this perspective, we have investigated how the chitosanization and PEGylation of NLCs affected their ability to function as a delivery system for apixaban (APX). These surface modifications could enhance the ability of NLCs to improve the bioavailability and pharmacodynamic activity of the loaded drug. In vitro and in vivo studies were carried out to examine APX-loaded NLCs, chitosan-modified NLCs, and PEGylated NLCs. The three nanoarchitectures displayed a Higuchi-diffusion release pattern in vitro, in addition to having their vesicular outline proven via electron microscopy. PEGylated and chitosanized NLCs retained good stability over 3 months, versus the nonPEGylated and nonchitosanized NLCs. Interestingly, APX-loaded chitosan-modified NLCs displayed better stability than the APX-loaded PEGylated NLCs, in terms of mean vesicle size after 90 days. On the other hand, the absorption profile of APX (AUC_0-inf) in rats pretreated with APX-loaded PEGylated NLCs (108.59 µg·mL^-1·h^-1) was significantly higher than the AUC_0-inf of APX in rats pretreated with APX-loaded chitosan-modified NLCs (93.397 µg·mL^-1·h^-1), and both were also significantly higher than AUC_0-inf of APX-Loaded NLCs (55.435 µg·mL^-1·h^-1). Chitosan-coated NLCs enhanced APX anticoagulant activity with increased prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time by 1.6- and 1.55-folds, respectively, compared to unmodified NLCs, and by 1.23- and 1.37-folds, respectively, compared to PEGylated NLCs. The PEGylation and chitosanization of NLCs enhanced the bioavailability and anticoagulant activity of APX over the nonmodified NLCs; this highlighted the importance of both approaches.

Functionalized Lipid Nanocarriers for Simultaneous Delivery of Docetaxel and Tariquidar to Chemoresistant Cancer Cells

The simultaneous drug delivery efficiency of a co-loaded single-carrier system of docetaxel (DTX)- and tariquidar (TRQ)-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) functionalized with PEG and RIPL peptide (PRN) (D^T-PRN) was compared with that of a physically mixed dual-carrier system of DTX-loaded PRN (D-PRN) and TRQ-loaded PRN (T-PRN) to overcome DTX mono-administration-induced multidrug resistance. NLC samples were prepared using the solvent emulsification evaporation technique and showed homogeneous spherical morphology, with nano-sized dispersion (<220 nm) and zeta potential values of −15 to −7 mV. DTX and/or TRQ was successfully encapsulated in NLC samples (>95% encapsulation efficiency and 73–78 µg/mg drug loading). In vitro cytotoxicity was concentration-dependent; D^T-PRN exhibited the highest MDR reversal efficiency, with the lowest combination index value, and increased the cytotoxicity and apoptosis in MCF7/ADR cells by inducing cell-cycle arrest in the G2/M phase. A competitive cellular uptake assay using fluorescent probes showed that, compared to the dual nanocarrier system, the single nanocarrier system exhibited better intracellular delivery efficiency of multiple probes to target cells. In the MCF7/ADR-xenografted mouse models, simultaneous DTX and TRQ delivery using D^T-PRN significantly suppressed tumor growth as compared to other treatments. A single co-loaded system for PRN-based co-delivery of DTX/TRQ (1:1, w/w) constitutes a promising therapeutic strategy for drug-resistant breast cancer cells.

Bioavailability Enhancement Techniques for Poorly Aqueous Soluble Drugs and Therapeutics

The low water solubility of pharmacoactive molecules limits their pharmacological potential, but the solubility parameter cannot compromise, and so different approaches are employed to enhance their bioavailability. Pharmaceutically active molecules with low solubility convey a higher risk of failure for drug innovation and development. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and several other parameters, such as drug distribution, protein binding and absorption, are majorly affected by their solubility. Among all pharmaceutical dosage forms, oral dosage forms cover more than 50%, and the drug molecule should be water-soluble. For good therapeutic activity by the drug molecule on the target site, solubility and bioavailability are crucial factors. The pharmaceutical industry’s screening programs identified that around 40% of new chemical entities (NCEs) face various difficulties at the formulation and development stages. These pharmaceuticals demonstrate less solubility and bioavailability. Enhancement of the bioavailability and solubility of drugs is a significant challenge in the area of pharmaceutical formulations. According to the Classification of Biopharmaceutics, Class II and IV drugs (APIs) exhibit poor solubility, lower bioavailability, and less dissolution. Various technologies are discussed in this article to improve the solubility of poorly water-soluble drugs, for example, the complexation of active molecules, the utilization of emulsion formation, micelles, microemulsions, cosolvents, polymeric micelle preparation, particle size reduction technologies, pharmaceutical salts, prodrugs, the solid-state alternation technique, soft gel technology, drug nanocrystals, solid dispersion methods, crystal engineering techniques and nanomorph technology. This review mainly describes several other advanced methodologies for solubility and bioavailability enhancement, such as crystal engineering, micronization, solid dispersions, nano sizing, the use of cyclodextrins, solid lipid nanoparticles, colloidal drug delivery systems and drug conjugates, referring to a number of appropriate research reports.

Synergistic co-administration of docetaxel and curcumin to chemoresistant cancer cells using PEGylated and RIPL peptide-conjugated nanostructured lipid carriers

Background

A targeted co-administration system of docetaxel (DTX) and curcumin (CUR) using a PEG-modified RIPL peptide (IPLVVPLRRRRRRRRC)-conjugated nanostructured lipid carrier (P/R-NLC) was constructed to exert synergistic anticancer effects against chemoresistant breast cancer.

Results

DTX- or CUR-loaded NLCs and P/R-NLCs were prepared using the solvent emulsification–evaporation method. NLCs showed homogeneous spherical morphology with nano-sized dispersion (< 210 nm) with zeta potential varying from − 16.4 to − 19.9 mV. DTX or CUR was successfully encapsulated in the NLCs: encapsulation efficiency (> 95%); drug loading (8 − 18%). All NLC formulations were stable for 4 weeks under the storage conditions at 4 °C. Drug release was diffusion-controlled, revealing the best fit to the Higuchi equation. DTX- or CUR-loaded formulations showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity. The DTX/CUR combination (1:3 w/w) in P/R-NLC formulations exhibited the strongest synergism in both MCF7 and MCF7/ADR cells with combination index values of 0.286 and 0.130, respectively. Co-treatment with DTX- or CUR-P/R-NLCs increased apoptosis in both cell lines exhibited the superior synergistic inhibitory effect on MCF7/ADR three-dimensional spheroids. Finally, in OVCAR3-xenografted mouse models, co-treatment with DTX- or CUR-loaded P/R-NLCs significantly suppressed tumor growth compared to the other treatment groups.

Conclusions

Co-administration of DTX/CUR (1:3 w/w) using P/R-NLCs induced a synergistic effect against chemoresistant cancer cells.

Graphical Abstract

Biochanin A as a modulator of the inflammatory response: an updated overview and therapeutic potential

Uncontrolled inflammation and failure to resolve the inflammatory response are crucial factors involved in the progress of inflammatory diseases. Current therapeutic strategies aimed at controlling excessive inflammation are effective in some cases, though they may be accompanied by severe side effects, such as immunosuppression. Phytochemicals as a therapeutic alternative can have a fundamental impact on the different stages of inflammation and its resolution. Biochanin A (BCA) is an isoflavone known for its wide range of pharmacological properties, especially its marked anti-inflammatory effects. Recent studies have provided evidence of BCA's abilities to activate events essential for resolving inflammation. In this review, we summarize the most recent findings from pre-clinical studies of the pharmacological effects of BCA on the complex signaling network associated with the onset and resolution of inflammation and BCA's potential protective functionality in several models of inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis, pulmonary disease, neuroinflammation, and metabolic disease.

Enhanced circulation longevity and pharmacodynamics of metformin from surface-modified nanostructured lipid carriers based on solidified reverse micellar solutions

Metformin hydrochloride (MTH) has been associated with poor/incomplete absorption (50–60%), low bioavailability, short half-life (0.4–0.5 h), high dosage and dose-related side effects. To overcome these barriers and improve oral bioavailability and efficacy of MTH, surface-modified nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were developed. Lipid matrices composed of rational blends of beeswax and Phospholipon® 90H (as solid lipids) and Capryol-PGE 860 (as liquid lipid) were prepared by fusion, and the resultant lipid matrices were PEGylated to give 10, 20 and 40% PEGylated lipid matrices. MTH-loaded non-PEGylated and PEGylated NLCs were prepared via high-shear hot homogenization and characterized regarding particle properties and physicochemical performance. The encapsulation efficiencies (EE%) and loading capacities (LC) of the MTH-loaded NLCs were determined while the in vitro drug release was evaluated in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4). Antidiabetic and pharmacokinetics properties of the NLCs were ascertained in an alloxan-induced diabetic rats model after oral administration. The MTH-loaded NLCs were nanomeric (particle size: 184.8–882.50 nm) with low polydispersity index (0.368–0.687) and zeta potential (26.5–34.2 mV), irregular shape, amorphous nature with reduced crystallinity. The EE% and LC were >90 % and 16%, respectively. The formulations showed >65 % release over 12 h in a greater sustained manner than marketed MTH formulation (Glucophage®) as well as enhanced pharmacokinetics properties and sustained blood glucose lowering effect, even at reduced doses with PEGylated NLCs than Glucophage®. Thus, PEGylated NLC is a promising approach for improved delivery and oral bioavailability of MTH thus encouraging further development of the formulation.

Nutritional constituent and health benefits of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.): A review

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), an annual plant of the Fabaceae family, is mainly grown in temperate and semiarid regions. Its biological activity and beneficial contribution to human health have been scientifically confirmed as an essential source of nutritional components. The objective of this review was to summarize and update latest available scientific data and information, on bioactive components in chickpea, bio-activities, and molecular mechanisms, which has mainly focused on the detection of relevant biochemical indicators, the regulation of signaling pathways, essential genes and proteins. The studies have shown that chickpea have significant multifunctional activities, which are closely related to the functionally active small molecule peptides and phytochemicals of chickpea. Significantly, numerous studies have only addressed the functional activity and mechanisms of single active components of chickpea, however, overlooking the synergy and antagonism between chickpea components, changes of functional active components in different processing methods, as well as the active form of the substances after human digestion and metabolism. Additionally, due to limitations in research methods and techniques, the structure of most functional active substances have not been determined, which makes it difficult to conduct interaction mechanism studies. Consequently, the significant bio-activity of the functional components of chickpea, synergistic and antagonistic effects and activity differences between bioactive components should be further studied.

Liver-targeted delivery of asiatic acid nanostructured lipid carrier for the treatment of liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a major global health concern. Management of chronic liver disease is severely restricted in clinics due to ineffective treatment approaches. However, a lack of targeted therapy may aggravate this condition. Asiatic acid (AA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid acid, can effectively protect the liver from hepatic disorders. However, the pharmaceutical application of AA is limited by low oral bioavailability and poor targeting efficiency. This study synthesized a novel liver-targeting material from PEG-SA, chemically linked to ursodeoxycholic acid (UA), and utilized it to modify AA nanostructured lipid carriers (UP-AA-NLC) with enhanced targeting and improved efficacy. The formulation of UP-AA-NLC was optimized via the Box–Behnken Experimental Design (BBD) and characterized by size, zeta potential, TEM, DSC, and XRD. Furthermore, in vitro antifibrotic activity and proliferation of AA and NLCs were assessed in LX-2 cells. The addition of UP-AA-NLC significantly stimulated the TGF-beta1-induced expression of α-SMA, FN1, and Col I α1. In vivo near-infrared fluorescence imaging and distribution trials in rats demonstrated that UP-AA-NLC could significantly improve oral absorption and liver-targeting efficiency. Oral UP-AA-NLC greatly alleviated carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury and fibrosis in rats in a dosage-dependent manner, as reflected by serum biochemical parameters (AST, ALT, and ALB), histopathological features (H&E and Masson staining), and antioxidant activity parameters (SOD and MDA). Also, treatment with UP-AA-NLC lowered liver hydroxyproline levels, demonstrating a reduction of collagen accumulation in the fibrotic liver. Collectively, optimized UP-AA-NLC has potential application prospects in liver-targeted therapy and holds great promise as a drug delivery system for treating liver diseases.

Oral delivery of solid lipid nanoparticles: underlining the physicochemical characteristics and physiological condition affecting the lipolysis rate

INTRODUCTION

Lipid-based nano-drug delivery systems (LBNDDSs) have gained widespread attention in oral drug delivery due to their tunable and versatile properties such as biocompatibility and biodegradability, which makes them promising delivery systems for a variety of therapeutics. Currently, different types of LBNDDSs including liposomes, micelles, nanoemulsions, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are developed for drug delivery applications. SLNs can be used as a controlled drug delivery system for oral delivery applications. However, its lipidic context makes that susceptible to lipolysis. The lipolysis rate of SLNs is affected by many factors that raise many questions for developing a more efficient delivery system.

AREAS COVERED

In the present work, we highlighted different factors affecting the digestion rate/level of SLNs in the gastrointestinal tract. This paper can be most useful for those researchers who are keen to develop a properly controlled drug delivery system based on SLNs for oral delivery applications.

EXPERT OPINION

SLNs can be used as a controlled drug delivery system for oral delivery applications. However, its lipidic context makes that susceptible to lipolysis. The lipolysis rate of SLNs is affected by many factors that raise many questions for developing a more efficient delivery system.

Biochanin A from Chinese Medicine: An Isoflavone with Diverse Pharmacological Properties

Biochanin A (BCA) is a dietary isoflavone, isolated from the leaves and stems of Trifolium pratense L and many other herbs of Chinese medicine. Recent findings indicated BCA as a promising drug candidate with diverse bioactive effects. On the purpose of evaluating the possibility of BCA in clinical application, this review is trying to provide a comprehensive summary of the pharmacological actions of BCA. The publications collected from PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Wiley databases were summarized for the last 10 years. Then, the potential therapeutic use of BCA on the treatment of various diseases was discussed according to its pharmacological properties, namely, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-diabetic, and anti-obesity effects as well as neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and osteoprotective effects. BCA might mainly regulate the MAPK, PI3K, NRF2, and NF-kB pathways, respectively, to exert its bioactive effects. However, the limited definitive targets, poor biological availability, and insufficient safety evaluation might block the clinical application of BCA. This review may provide new insights for the development of BCA in the application of related diseases.

Regulation of in vivo delivery of nanomedicines by herbal medicines

Nanomedicines are of increasing scrutiny due to their improved efficacy and/or mitigated side effects. They can be integrated with many other therapeutics to further boost the clinical benefits. Among those, herbal medicines are arousing great interest to be combined with nanomedicines to exert synergistic effects in multifaceted mechanisms. The in vivo performance of nanomedicines which determines the therapeutic efficacy and safety is believed to be heavily influenced by the physio-pathological characters of the body. Activation of multiple immune factors, e.g., complement system, phagocytic cells, lymphocytes, and among many others, can affect the fate of nanomedicines in blood circulation, biodistribution, interaction with single cells and intracellular transport. Immunomodulatory effects and metabolic regulation by herbal medicines have been widely witnessed during the past decades, which alter the physio-pathological conditions and dramatically affect in vivo delivery of nanomedicines. In this review, we summarize recent progress of understanding on the in vivo delivery process of nanomedicines and analyze the major affecting factors that regulate the interaction of nanomedicines with organisms. We discuss the immunomodulatory roles and metabolic regulation by herbal medicines and their effects on in vivo delivery process of nanomedicines, as well as the prospective clinical benefits from the combination of nanomedicines and herbal medicines.

Challenges in Oral Drug Delivery and Applications of Lipid Nanoparticles as Potent Oral Drug Carriers for Managing Cardiovascular Risk Factors

BACKGROUND

The oral application of drugs is the most popular route through which the systemic effect can be achieved. Nevertheless, oral administration is limited by difficulties related to the physicochemical properties of the drug molecule, including low aqueous solubility, instability, low permeability, and rapid metabolism, all of which result in low and irregular oral bioavailability.

OBJECTIVE

The enhancement of oral bioavailability of drug molecules with such properties could lead to extreme complications in drug preparations. Oral lipid-based nanoparticles seem to possess extensive advantages due to their ability to increase the solubility, simplifying intestinal absorption and decrease or eradicate the effect of food on the absorption of low soluble, lipophilic drugs and therefore improving the oral bioavailability.

METHODS

The present review provides a summary of the general theory of lipid-based nanoparticles, their preparation methods, as well as their oral applications. Moreover, oral drug delivery challenges are discussed.

RESULTS

According to this review, the most frequent types of lipid-based nanoparticle, the solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers are potent oral carriers due to their ability to penetrate the oral drug adsorption barriers. Moreover, such lipid nanoparticles can be beneficial drug carriers against cardiovascular risk disorders as diabetes, hypertension, etc. Conclusion: In this review, the most current and promising studies involving Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers as oral drug carriers are reported aiming to assist researchers who focus their research on lipid-based nanoparticles.

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs): Nose-to-Brain Delivery and Theranostic Application

BACKGROUND

Nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are in high demand in the existing pharmaceutical domain due to its high versatility. It is the newer generation of lipid nanoparticulate systems having a solid matrix and greater stability at room temperature.

OBJECTIVE

To review the evidence related to the current state of the art of the NLCs system and its drug delivery perspectives to the brain.

METHODS

Scientific data search, review of the current state of the art and drug delivery perspectives to the brain for NLCs were undertaken to assess the applicability of NLCs in the management of neurological disorders through an intranasal route of drug administration.

RESULTS

NLCs are designed to fulfill all the industrial needs like simple technology, low cost, scalability, and quantifications. Biodegradable and biocompatible lipids and surfactants used for NLCs have rendered them acceptable from regulatory perspectives as well. Apart from these, NLCs have unique properties of high drug payload, modulation of drug release profile, minimum drug expulsion during storage, and incorporation in various dosage forms like gel, creams, granules, pellets, powders for reconstitution and colloidal dispersion. Ease of surface- modification of NLCs enhances targeting efficiency and reduces systemic toxicity by providing site-specific delivery to the brain through the intranasal route of drug administration.

CONCLUSION

The present review encompasses the in-depth discussion over the current state of the art of NLCs, nose-to-brain drug delivery perspectives, and its theranostic application as useful tools for better management of various neurological disorders. Further, pharmacokinetic consideration and toxicity concern is also discussed specifically for the NLCs system exploited in nose-to-brain delivery.

Exciting Potential of Nanoparticlized Lipidic System for Effective Treatment of Breast Cancer and Clinical Updates: A Translational Prospective

Breast cancer (BC) is a multifactorial disease and becoming a major health issue in women throughout the globe. BC is a malignant type of cancer which results from transcriptional changes in proteins and genes. Besides the availability of modern medicines and detection tools, BC has become a topmost deadly disease and its cure still remains challenging. Nanotechnology based approaches are being employed for the diagnosis and treatment of BC at clinical stages. Nanosystems have a significant role in the study of the interaction of malignant cells with their microenvironment through receptor-based targeted approach. Nowadays, lipid-based nanocarriers are being popularized in the domain of pharmaceutical and medical biology for cancer therapy. Lipidic nanoparticlized systems (LNPs) have proven to have high loading efficiency, less toxicity, improved therapeutic efficacy, enhanced bioavailability and stability of the bioactive compounds compared to traditional drug delivery systems. In the present context, several LNPs based formulations have been undertaken in various phases of clinical trials in different countries. This review highlights the importance of chemotherapeutics based lipidic nanocarriers and their anticipated use for the treatment of BC. Furthermore, the clinical trials and future prospective of LNPs have been widely elaborated.

Development of tamoxifen-loaded surface-modified nanostructured lipid carrier using experimental design: in vitro and ex vivo characterisation

The present study aimed to develop a surface-modified biocompatible nanostructured lipid carrier (NLCs) system using polyoxyethylene (40) stearate (POE-40-S) to improve the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble Biopharmaceutics Classification System class-II drug like tamoxifen (TMX). Also aimed to screen the most influential factors affecting the particle size (PS) using Taguchi (L₁₂ (2¹¹)) orthogonal array design (TgL₁₂OA). Then, to optimize the TMX loaded POE-40-S (P) surface-modified NLCs (TMX-loaded-PEG-40-S coated NLC (PNLCs) or PNLCs) by central composite design (CCD) using a four-factor, five-level model. The most influential factors affecting the PS was screened and optimized. The in-vitro study showed that increased drug-loading (DL) and encapsulation efficiency (EE), decreased PS and charge, sustained drug release for the prolonged period of the time with good stability and suppressed protein adsorption. The Ex-vivo study showed that decreased mucous binding with five-fold enhanced permeability of PNLC formulation after surface modification with POE-40-S. The in-vitro cytotoxicity study showed that the blank carrier is biocompatible and cytotoxicity of the formulation was dependent on the concentration of the drug. Finally, it can be concluded that the surface-modified PNLCs formulation was an effective, biocompatible, stable formulation in the enhancement of dissolution rate, solubility, stability with reduced mucus adhesion and increased permeability thereby which indicates its enhanced oral bioavailability.

Pharmacokinetic studies of nanoparticles as a delivery system for conventional drugs and herb-derived compounds for cancer therapy: a systematic review

The poor pharmacokinetic characteristics of most anticancer drugs have limited their clinical effectiveness. The application of nanoparticles as a novel drug delivery system has provided opportunities to tackle the current challenges facing conventional drug delivery systems such as poor pharmacokinetics, lack of specificity to tumor cells, multidrug resistance, and toxicity. This systematic review aims to examine the application of pharmacokinetic studies of nanoparticles loaded in conventional drugs and herb-derived compounds for cancer therapy. The pharmacokinetic parameters of several herbal medicines and chemotherapeutic drugs loaded into nanoparticles were reported. This included area under the curve (AUC) of plasma concentration-time profile, maximum plasma concentration (C_max), time to maximum plasma concentration (T_max), volume of distribution (V_d or V_ss), elimination half-life (t_½), and clearance (CL). The systematic review was conducted using information available in the PubMed and Science Direct databases up to February 2019. The search terms employed were: pharmacokinetics, pharmacokinetic study, nanoparticles, anticancer, traditional medicine, herbal medicine, herb-derived compounds, natural products, and chemotherapy. Overall, nanoparticle carriers not only significantly improved pharmacokinetics but also further enhanced permeability, solubility, stability, specificity, and selectivity of the carried anticancer drugs/herb-derived compounds to target tumor cells. Additionally, they also limited hepatic first-pass metabolism and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux of the carried anticancer drugs/herb-derived compounds. Based on this systematic review, polymeric nanoparticles were the most commonly used nanocarrier to improve the pharmacokinetic parameters. The use of nanoparticles as a novel drug delivery system has the potential to improve both pharmacokinetics and cytotoxicity activity of the loaded drugs/herb-derived compounds for cancer therapy.

Perspectives Regarding the Role of Biochanin A in Humans

Biochanin A (BCA) is an isoflavone mainly found in red clover with poor solubility and oral absorption that is known to have various effects, including anti-inflammatory, estrogen-like, and glucose and lipid metabolism modulatory activity, as well as cancer preventive, neuroprotective, and drug interaction effects. BCA is already commercially available and is among the main ingredients in many types of supplements used to alleviate postmenopausal symptoms in women. The activity of BCA has not been adequately evaluated in humans. However, the results of many in vitro and in vivo studies investigating the potential health benefits of BCA are available, and the complex mechanisms by which BCA modulates transcription, apoptosis, metabolism, and immune responses have been revealed. Many efforts have been exerted to improve the poor bioavailability of BCA, and very promising results have been reported. This review focuses on the major effects of BCA and its possible molecular targets, potential uses, and limitations in health maintenance and treatment.

Inhalation treatment of cystic fibrosis with lumacaftor and ivacaftor co-delivered by nanostructured lipid carriers

Cystic fibrosis (CF), a most deadly genetic disorder, is caused by mutations of CF transmembrane receptor (CFTR) - a chloride channel present at the surface of epithelial cells. In general, two steps have to be involved in treatment of the disease: correction of cellular defects and potentiation to further increase channel opening. Consequently, a combinatorial simultaneous treatment with two drugs with different mechanisms of action, lumacaftor and ivacaftor, has been recently proposed. While lumacaftor is used to correct p.Phe508del mutation (the loss of phenylalanine at position 508) and increase the amount of cell surface-localized CFTR protein, ivacaftor serves as a CFTR potentiator that increases the open probability of CFTR channels. Since the main organ that is affected by cystic fibrosis is the lung, the delivery of drugs directly to the lungs by inhalation has a potential to enhance the efficacy of the treatment of CF and limit adverse side effects upon healthy tissues and organs. Based on our extensive experience in inhalation delivering of drugs by different nanocarriers, we selected nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) for the delivery both drugs directly to the lungs by inhalation and tested NLC loaded with drugs in vitro (normal and CF human bronchial epithelial cells) and in vivo (homozygote/homozygote bi-transgenic mice with CF). The results show that the designed NLCs demonstrated a high drug loading efficiency and were internalized in the cytoplasm of CF cells. It was found that NLC-loaded drugs were able to restore the expression and function of CFTR protein. As a result, the combination of lumacaftor and ivacaftor delivered by lipid nanoparticles directly into the lungs was highly effective in treating lung manifestations of cystic fibrosis.

A rapid and efficient technique for liposomal and nonliposomal drug pharmacokinetics studies using magnetic nanoprobes and its application to leakage kinetics of liposomes

Currently, the pharmacokinetics of liposomes was researched in vivo by measuring the total amount of drug in plasma. This method of using the total drug amount instead of the free drug amount virtually increase the apparent exposure and apparent biological distribution. To solve this problem, we developed a rapid and efficient method by using well-established streptavidin-functional Fe₃O₄@PDA as the separation nanoprobes to efficiently isolate biotin-labeled DTX-liposomes over 75% from plasma in the presence of magnetic field. The isolation procedure takes only 20 min and the concentration of DTX in liposomes from plasma was determined by LC-MS/MS. The method for the determination of DTX in plasma was linear in the range of 5-5000 ng/mL, and the correlation coefficient was 0.9989. Results obtained in this study clearly demonstrated that the pharmacokinetic parameters of non-liposomal drug and total drug are different in vivo. Therefore, traditional method for studying the pharmacokinetics of liposomes in vivo is unreasonable, and the new method mentioned here provided a strategy for studying the pharmacokinetics of liposomes.

Sterically Stabilized RIPL Peptide-Conjugated Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: Characterization, Cellular Uptake, Cytotoxicity, and Biodistribution

As a platform for hepsin-specific drug delivery, we previously prepared IPLVVPLRRRRRRRRC peptide (RIPL)-conjugated nanostructured lipid carriers (RIPL-NLCs) composed of Labrafil® M 1944 CS (liquid oil) and Precirol® ATO 5 (solid lipid). In this study, to prevent the recognition by the mononuclear phagocyte system, polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified RIPL-NLCs (PEG-RIPL-NLCs) were prepared using PEG3000 at different grafting ratios (1, 5, and 10 mole %). All prepared NLCs showed a homogeneous dispersion (130⁻280 nm), with zeta potentials varying from -18 to 10 mV. Docetaxel (DTX) was successfully encapsulated in NLCs: encapsulation efficiency (93⁻95%); drug-loading capacity (102⁻109 µg/mg). PEG-RIPL-NLCs with a grafting ratio of 5% PEG or higher showed significantly reduced protein adsorption and macrophage phagocytosis. The uptake of PEG(5%)-RIPL-NLCs by cancer cell lines was somewhat lower than that of RIPL-NLCs because of the PEG-induced steric hindrance; however, the uptake level of PEG-RIPL-NLCs was still greater than that of plain NLCs. In vivo biodistribution was evaluated after tail vein injection of NLCs to normal mice. Compared to RIPL-NLCs, PEG(5%)-RIPL-NLCs showed lower accumulation in the liver, spleen, and lung. In conclusion, we found that PEG(5%)-RIPL-NLCs could be a promising nanocarrier for selective drug targeting with a high payload of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Preparation, characterization and antimicrobial activity of inclusion complex of biochanin A with (2-hydroxypropyl)-β-cyclodextrin

Objectives

An inclusion complex of biochanin A (BCA) with (2-hydroxypropyl)-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) was prepared in the ethanol solution to improve its water solubility.

Methods

Using the FTIR, 1H-NMR, XRD, DSC and SEM methods, the structural characterization of the prepared complex was analysed.

Key findings

The phase-solubility study has shown that the solubility of BCA was increased twofold in 42% (v/v) ethanol solution after complexation with HP-β-CD. The complex between BCA and HP-β-CD was prepared in the molar ratio of 1 : 1. The antibacterial activity of the inclusion complex was investigated against the various bacteria, fungus and yeast using the microdilution method. The minimal inhibitory concentration values for the analysed strain of bacteria were in the range of 0.84–1.69 mg/cm3, whereby the prepared inclusion complex exhibited less effect on the reduction of the number of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae species compared to pure BCA. The inclusion complex of BCA was significantly more active against Candida albicans than pure BCA. Biochanin A and its inclusion complex has not expressed the activity against Aspergillus niger.

Conclusions

Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the antimicrobial activity of BCA was remained unchanged after complexation.

Pharmaceutical Dispersion Techniques for Dissolution and Bioavailability Enhancement of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs

Over the past decades, a large number of drugs as well as drug candidates with poor dissolution characteristics have been witnessed, which invokes great interest in enabling formulation of these active ingredients. Poorly water-soluble drugs, especially biopharmaceutical classification system (BCS) II ones, are preferably designed as oral dosage forms if the dissolution limit can be broken through. Minimizing a drug’s size is an effective means to increase its dissolution and hence the bioavailability, which can be achieved by specialized dispersion techniques. This article reviews the most commonly used dispersion techniques for pharmaceutical processing that can practically enhance the dissolution and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. Major interests focus on solid dispersion, lipid-based dispersion (nanoencapsulation), and liquisolid dispersion (drug solubilized in a non-volatile solvent and dispersed in suitable solid excipients for tableting or capsulizing), covering the formulation development, preparative technique and potential applications for oral drug delivery. Otherwise, some other techniques that can increase the dispersibility of a drug such as co-precipitation, concomitant crystallization and inclusion complexation are also discussed. Various dispersion techniques provide a productive platform for addressing the formulation challenge of poorly water-soluble drugs. Solid dispersion and liquisolid dispersion are most likely to be successful in developing oral dosage forms. Lipid-based dispersion represents a promising approach to surmounting the bioavailability of low-permeable drugs, though the technique needs to traverse the obstacle from liquid to solid transformation. Novel dispersion techniques are highly encouraged to develop for formulation of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Novel Intravaginal Drug Delivery System Based on Molecularly PEGylated Lipid Matrices for Improved Antifungal Activity of Miconazole Nitrate

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of microparticles based on biocompatible phytolipids [Softisan® 154 (SF) (hydrogenated palm oil) and super-refined sunseed oil (SO)] and polyethylene glycol- (PEG-) 4000 to improve intravaginal delivery of miconazole nitrate (MN) for effective treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). Lipid matrices (LMs) consisting of rational blends of SF and SO with or without PEG-4000 were prepared by fusion and characterized and employed to formulate MN-loaded solid lipid microparticles (SLMs) by melt-homogenization. The SLMs were characterized for physicochemical properties, anticandidal activity, and stability. Spherical discrete microparticles with good physicochemical properties and mean diameters suitable for vaginal drug delivery were obtained. Formulations based on SO:SF (1:9) and containing highest concentrations of PEG-4000 (4 %w/w) and MN (3.0 %w/w) were stable and gave highest encapsulation efficiency (83.05–87.75%) and inhibition zone diameter (25.87±0.94–26.33±0.94 mm) and significantly (p<0.05) faster and more powerful fungicidal activity regarding killing rate constant values (7.10 x 10⁻³–1.09 x 10⁻² min⁻¹) than commercial topical solution of MN (Fungusol®) (8.00 x 10⁻³ min⁻¹) and pure MN sample (5.160 x 10⁻³ min⁻¹). This study has shown that MN-loaded SLMs based on molecularly PEGylated lipid matrices could provide a better option to deal with VVC.

Surface-modified mucoadhesive microgels as a controlled release system for miconazole nitrate to improve localized treatment of vulvovaginal candidiasis

The use of conventional vaginal formulations of miconazole nitrate (MN) in the treatment of deep-seated VVC (vulvovaginal candidiasis) is limited by poor penetration capacity and low solubility of MN, short residence time and irritation at the application site. Surface-modified mucoadhesive microgels were developed to minimize local irritation, enhance penetration capacity and solubility and prolong localized vaginal delivery of MN for effective treatment of deep-seated VVC. Solid lipid microparticles (SLMs) were prepared from matrices consisting of hydrogenated palm oil (Softisan® 154, SF) and super-refined sunseed oil (SO) with or without polyethylene glycol (PEG)-4000, characterized for physicochemical performance and used to prepare mucoadhesive microgels (MMs) encapsulating MN, employing Polycarbophil as bioadhesive polymer. The MMs were evaluated for physicochemical performance and in vitro drug release in simulated vaginal fluid (pH=4.2), whereas mucoadhesive, rheological and stability tests, anticandidal efficacy in immunosuppressed estrogen-dependent female rats and vaginal tolerance test in rabbits were performed with optimized formulation. The amorphicity of 1:9 phytolipid blend (SO:SF) was increased in the presence of PEG-4000. The physicochemical properties of the SLMs and MMs indicated their suitability for vaginal drug delivery. Overall, MN-loaded PEGylated MMs exhibited significantly (p<0.05) more prolonged drug release than non-PEGylated MMs. Additionally, optimized PEGylated MMs was stable at 40±2°C over a period of 6months, viscoelastic, mucoadhesive, non-sensitizing, histopathologically safe and gave remarkably (p<0.05) higher reduction in Candida albicans load (86.06%) than Daktarin® (75.0%) and MN-loaded polymeric-hydrogel (47.74%) in treated rats in 12days. Thus, PEGylated MMs is promising for effective and convenient treatment of VVC.

Enhancing the oral bioavailability of biochanin A by encapsulation in mixed micelles containing Pluronic F127 and Plasdone S630

Biochanin A (BCA), a natural dietary isoflavone, has been reported to show anticancer activities. However, its low biological availability and poor aqueous solubility limit its usefulness as a chemotherapeutic agent. We developed BCA-loaded micelles with Pluronic F127 and Plasdone S630 (BCA-FS). The optimized, spherical-shaped BCA-FS was obtained at a ratio of 1:1 (F127:S630). The particle size was 25.17±1.2 nm, and the zeta potential was −10.9±0.24 mV. BCA solubility in water increased to 5.0 mg/mL after encapsulation, and the drug-loading efficiency was 5.88%±0.76%. In vitro release experiments showed a delayed release of BCA from the mixed micelles. Furthermore, the BCA absorption permeability across a Caco-2 cell monolayer from the apical side to the basolateral side increased by 54% in BCA-FS. A pharmacokinetics evaluation showed a 2.16-fold increase in the relative oral bioavailability of BCA-FS compared with raw BCA, indicating that the mixed micelles may promote absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. A gastrointestinal safety assay was used to assess the reliability and safety of BCA-FS. On the basis of these findings, we conclude that this simple nanomicelle system could be leveraged to deliver BCA and other hydrophobic drugs.

Advances in Hybrid Polymer-Based Materials for Sustained Drug Release

The use of biomaterials composed of organic pristine components has been successfully described in several purposes, such as tissue engineering and drug delivery. Drug delivery systems (DDS) have shown several advantages over traditional drug therapy, such as greater therapeutic efficacy, prolonged delivery profile, and reduced drug toxicity, as evidenced by in vitro and in vivo studies as well as clinical trials. Despite that, there is no perfect delivery carrier, and issues such as undesirable viscosity and physicochemical stability or inability to efficiently encapsulate hydrophilic/hydrophobic molecules still persist, limiting DDS applications. To overcome that, biohybrid systems, originating from the synergistic assembly of polymers and other organic materials such as proteins and lipids, have recently been described, yielding molecularly planned biohybrid systems that are able to optimize structures to easily interact with the targets. This work revised the biohybrid DDS clarifying their advantages, limitations, and future perspectives in an attempt to contribute to further research of innovative and safe biohybrid polymer-based system as biomaterials for the sustained release of active molecules.

Hyaluronic acid-coated, prodrug-based nanostructured lipid carriers for enhanced pancreatic cancer therapy

CONTEXT

Gemcitabine (GEM) and Baicalein (BCL) are reported to have anti-tumor effects including pancreatic cancer. Hyaluronic acid (HA) can bind to over-expressed receptors in various kinds of cancer cells.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to develop prodrugs containing HA, BCL and GEM, and construct nanomedicine incorporate GEM and BCL in the core and HA on the surface. This system could target the cancer cells and co-deliver the drugs.

METHODS

GEM-stearic acid lipid prodrug (GEM-SA) and hyaluronic acid-amino acid-baicalein prodrug (HA-AA-BCL) were synthesized. Then, GEM and BCL prodrug-based targeted nanostructured lipid carriers (HA-GEM-BCL NLCs) were prepared by the nanoprecipitation technique. The in vitro cytotoxicity studies of the NLCs were evaluated on AsPC1 pancreatic cancer cell line. In vivo anti-tumor effects were observed on the murine-bearing pancreatic cancer model.

RESULTS

HA-GEM-BCL NLCs were effective in entering pancreatic cancer cells over-expressing HA receptors, and showed cytotoxicity of tumor cells in vitro. In vivo study revealed significant tumor growth inhibition ability of HA-GEM-BCL NLCs in murine pancreatic cancer model.

CONCLUSION

It could be concluded that HA-GEM-BCL NLCs could be featured as promising co-delivery, tumor-targeted nanomedicine for the treatment of cancers.

Preclinical safety of solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers: Current evidence from in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) were designed as exceptionally safe colloidal carriers for the delivery of poorly soluble drugs. SLN/NLC have the particularity of being composed of excipientsalready approved for use in medicines for human use, which offers a great advantage over any other nanoparticulate system developed from novel materials. Despite this fact, any use of excipients in new route of administration or in new dosage form requires evidence of safety. After 25 years of research on SLN and NLC, enough evidence on their preclinical safety has been published. In the present work, published data on in vitro and in vivo compatibility of SLN/NLC have been surveyed, in order to provide evidence of high biocompatibility distinguished by intended administration route. We also identified critical factors and possible weak points in SLN/NLC formulations, such as the effect of surfactants on the cell viability in vitro, which should be considered for further development.

Nanostructured lipid carriers: versatile oral delivery vehicle

Oral delivery is the most accepted and economical route for drug administration and leads to substantial reduction in dosing frequency. However, this route still remains a challenge for the pharmaceutical industry due to poorly soluble and permeable drugs leading to poor oral bioavailability. Incorporating bioactives into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) has helped in boosting their therapeutic functionality and prolonged release from these carrier systems thus providing improved pharmacokinetic parameters. The present review provides an overview of noteworthy studies reporting impending benefits of NLCs in oral delivery and highlights recent advancements for developing engineered NLCs either by conjugating polymers over their surface or modifying their charge to overcome the mucosal barrier of GI tract for active transport across intestinal membrane.

Lay abstract: Oral administration of drugs is considered to be a convenient route; however, various drugs that are insoluble in water or unable to permeate across GI tract membrane cannot be delivered by this route. To deliver them effectively, various lipid carriers have been widely explored by researchers. Lipid carriers encapsulate drug inside them and deliver them effectively via the oral route. Also, encapsulation of drug protects them from degradation inside GI tract and safely delivers them to the site of action. This review summarizes application of lipid carriers, in other words, nanostructured lipid carriers, in eradicating these problems, with suitable examples.

Discovery and Current Status of Evaluation System of Bioavailability and Related Pharmaceutical Technologies for Traditional Chinese Medicines--Flos Lonicerae Japonicae--Fructus Forsythiae Herb Couples as an Example

Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have attracted extensive interest throughout the world due to their long history of health protection and disease control, and the internalization of TCM preparations or patented drugs has been considered a wind vane in the process of TCM modernization. However, multi-target effects, caused by multiple components in TCMs, hinder not only the construction of the quality evaluation system (bioavailability), but also the application of pharmaceutical technologies, which results in the poor efficacy in clinical practice. This review describes the methods in the literature as well as in our thoughts about how to identify the marker components, establish the evaluation system of bioavailability, and improve the bioavailability in TCM preparations. We expect that the current study will be positive and informative.