Biotechnological production and applications ofCordyceps militaris, a valued traditional Chinese medicine

Conservation of Endangered Cordyceps sinensis Through Artificial Cultivation Strategies of C. militaris, an Alternate

Cordyceps, an entomopathogenic fungus belonging to the Ascomycota phylum, is a familiar remedial mushroom that is extensively used in the traditional medicinal system, especially in South Asian nations. The significance of this genus' members in a range of therapeutic and biotechnological applications has long been acknowledged. The exceedingly valuable fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Cordyceps sinensis) is found in the alpine meadows of Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet, and India, where it is severely harvested. Driven by market demand and ecological concerns, the study highlights challenges in natural C. sinensis collection and emphasizes the shift towards sustainable artificial cultivation methods. This in-depth review navigates Cordyceps cultivation strategies, focusing on C. sinensis and the viable alternative, C. militaris. The escalating demand for Cordyceps fruiting bodies and bioactive compounds prompts a shift toward sustainable artificial cultivation. While solid-state fermentation on brown rice remains a traditional method, liquid culture, especially submerged and surface/static techniques, emerges as a key industrial approach, offering shorter cultivation periods and enhanced cordycepin production. The review accentuates the adaptability and scalability of liquid culture, providing valuable insights for large-scale Cordyceps production. The future prospects of Cordyceps cultivation require a holistic approach, combining scientific understanding, technological innovation, and sustainable practices to meet the demand for bioactive metabolites while ensuring the conservation of natural Cordyceps populations.

Biological characteristics of Cordyceps militaris single mating-type strains

Cordyceps militaris has been extensively cultivated as a model cordyceps species for commercial purposes. Nevertheless, the problems related to strain degeneration and breeding technologies remain unresolved. This study assessed the physiology and fertility traits of six C. militaris strains with distinct origins and characteristics, focusing on single mating-type strains. The results demonstrated that the three identified strains (CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02) were single mating-type possessing only one mating-type gene (MAT1-1). In contrast, the other three strains (CMXF07, CMXF09, and CMMS05) were the dual mating type. The MAT1-1 strains sourced from CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02 consistently produced sporocarps but failed to generate ascospores. However, when paired with MAT1-2 strains, the MAT1-1 strains with slender fruiting bodies and normal morphology were fertile. The hyphal growth rate of single mating-type strains (CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02) typically surpassed that of dual mating-type strains (CMXF07, CMXF09, and CMMS05). The growth rates of MAT1-2 and MAT1-1 strains were proportional to their ratios, such that a single mating-type strain with a higher ratio exhibited an increased growth rate. As C. militaris matured, the adenosine content decreased. In summary, the C. militaris strains that consistently produce sporocarps and have a single mating type are highly promising for production and breeding.

Cordyceps militaris Extract and Cordycepin Alleviate Oxidative Stress, Modulate Gut Microbiota and Ameliorate Intestinal Damage in LPS-Induced Piglets

Cordycepin is considered a major bioactive component in Cordyceps militaris extract. This study was performed to evaluate the ameliorative effect of Cordyceps militaris extract (CME) and cordycepin (CPN) supplementation on intestinal damage in LPS-challenged piglets. The results showed that CPN or CME supplementation significantly increased the villus height (p < 0.01) and villus height/crypt depth ratio (p < 0.05) in the jejunum and ileum of piglets with LPS-induced intestinal inflammation. Meanwhile, CPN or CME supplementation alleviated oxidative stress and inflammatory responses by reducing the levels of MDA (p < 0.05) and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the serum. Additionally, supplementation with CPN or CME modulated the structure of the intestinal microbiota by enriching short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria, and increased the level of butyrate (p < 0.05). The RNA-seq results demonstrated that CME or CPN altered the complement and coagulation-cascade-related genes (p < 0.05), including upregulating gene KLKB1 while downregulating the genes CFD, F2RL2, CFB, C4BPA, F7, C4BPB, CFH, C3 and PROS1, which regulate the complement activation involved in inflammatory and immune responses. Correlation analysis further demonstrated the potential relation between the gut microbiota and intestinal inflammation, oxidative stress, and butyrate in piglets. In conclusion, CPN or CME supplementation might inhibit LPS-induced inflammation and oxidative stress by modulating the intestinal microbiota and its metabolite butyrate in piglets.

Metabolite profiling and antioxidant capacity of natural Ophiocordyceps gracilis and its cultures using LC-MS/MS-based metabolomics: Comparison with Ophiocordyceps sinensis

INTRODUCTION

Ophiocordyceps gracilis is an entomopathogenic fungus and a precious traditional Chinese medicine with similar medicinal properties to Ophiocordyceps sinensis. However, information on the metabolite profiles of natural O. gracilis and its cultures is lacking, which limits their utilization.

OBJECTIVE

The metabolic variations and antioxidant activities of O. gracilis cultures and natural O. gracilis were analyzed to evaluate the nutritional and medicinal value of O. gracilis and its cultures.

METHOD

The metabolite profiles of O. gracilis cultures (fruiting bodies and aerial mycelia), natural O. gracilis, and natural O. sinensis were compared by LC-MS/MS coupled with multivariate data analysis. Furthermore, their antioxidant activities were evaluated based on their DPPH• , ABTS•+ , and • OH scavenging abilities.

RESULTS

A total of 612 metabolites were identified, and the metabolic compositions of the four Cordyceps samples were similar, with differences observed in the levels of some metabolites. There were 126 differential metabolites between natural O. gracilis and natural O. sinensis, among which fatty acids, carbohydrates, and secondary metabolites are predominant in natural O. gracilis. Furthermore, 116 differential metabolites between O. gracilis cultures and natural Cordyceps were identified, with generally higher levels in O. gracilis cultures than in natural Cordyceps. O. gracilis cultivated fruiting bodies exhibited the strongest antioxidant capacity among Cordyceps samples. Additionally, 46 primary and 24 secondary differential metabolites contribute to antioxidant activities.

CONCLUSION

This study provides a reference for the application of natural O. gracilis and its cultures in functional food and medicine from the perspective of metabolites and antioxidant capacity.

Light-Exposed Metabolic Responses of Cordyceps militaris through Transcriptome-Integrated Genome-Scale Modeling

The genome-scale metabolic model (GSMM) of Cordyceps militaris provides a comprehensive basis of carbon assimilation for cell growth and metabolite production. However, the model with a simple mass balance concept shows limited capability to probe the metabolic responses of C. militaris under light exposure. This study, therefore, employed the transcriptome-integrated GSMM approach to extend the investigation of C. militaris's metabolism under light conditions. Through the gene inactivity moderated by metabolism and expression (GIMME) framework, the iPS1474-tiGSMM model was furnished with the transcriptome data, thus providing a simulation that described reasonably well the metabolic responses underlying the phenotypic observation of C. militaris under the particular light conditions. The iPS1474-tiGSMM obviously showed an improved prediction of metabolic fluxes in correlation with the expressed genes involved in the cordycepin and carotenoid biosynthetic pathways under the sucrose culturing conditions. Further analysis of reporter metabolites suggested that the central carbon, purine, and fatty acid metabolisms towards carotenoid biosynthesis were the predominant metabolic processes responsible in light conditions. This finding highlights the key responsive processes enabling the acclimatization of C. militaris metabolism in varying light conditions. This study provides a valuable perspective on manipulating metabolic genes and fluxes towards the target metabolite production of C. militaris.

First report of emerging fungal pathogens of Cordyceps militaris in Vietnam

Cultivation of Cordyceps militaris, a valuable medicinal and edible fungus, has dramatically increased in Vietnam since 2010. During industrial production, parasitic white molds were found to infect the mycelia and fruiting bodies of C. militaris causing significant quality and yield losses. Two different fungal strains were obtained from the mycelia and fruiting bodies of C. militaris in Danang mushroom farms and were characterized by morphological and multiple DNA markers analysis. The sequence alignment of ITS, LSU and rpb2 markers revealed that the pathogens are related to the type species Lecanicillium coprophilum and Calcarisporium cordycipiticola with more than 99% sequence identities. The growth characteristics and pathogenic activities of the two isolated species on their host C. militaris were also investigated. The phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS sequences showed that L. coprophilum WF2611 is closer to its host C. militaris than C. cordycipiticola NT1504. To our knowledge, this is the first worldwide report of C. militaris infected by L. coprophilum which would be an useful information on prevention and control of the disease and be helpful for the industrial cultivation of C. militaris.

Molecular Phylogeny and Morphology Reveal Cryptic Species in the Cordyceps militaris Complex from Vietnam

The Cordyceps militaris complex, which is a special group in the genus Cordyceps, is rich in species diversity and is widely distributed in nature. Throughout the investigations of arthropod-pathogenic fungi in the national reserves and in Vietnam parks, collections of C. militaris attacking lepidopteran pupae or larvae were located in the soil and on the leaf litter. The phylogenetic analyses of the combined nrSSU, nrLSU, TEF, RPB1, and RPB2 sequence data indicated that the fungal materials collected in Vietnam belonged to C. militaris and two hidden species in the C. militaris complex. The phylogenetic analyses and morphological comparisons presented here strongly supported the descriptions of C. polystromata and C. sapaensis as new taxa as well as C. militaris as a known species. The morphological characteristics of 11 species in the C. militaris complex, which included two novel species and nine known taxa, were also compared.

Cordycepin buffers anisomycin-induced fear memory deficit by restoring hippocampal BDNF

The process of memory consolidation involves the synthesis of new proteins, and interfering with protein synthesis through anisomycin can impair memory. Memory deficits due to aging and sleep disorders may also result from a reduction in protein synthesis. Rescuing memory deficits caused by protein synthesis deficiency is therefore an important issue that needs to be addressed. Our study focused on the effects of cordycepin on fear memory deficits induced by anisomycin using contextual fear conditioning. We observed that cordycepin was able to attenuate these deficits and restore BDNF levels in the hippocampus. The behavioral effects of cordycepin were dependent on the BDNF/TrkB pathway, as demonstrated by the use of ANA-12. Cordycepin had no significant impact on locomotor activity, anxiety or fear memory. Our findings provide the first evidence that cordycepin can prevent anisomycin-induced memory deficits by regulating BDNF expression in the hippocampus.

Functional genomics and systems biology of Cordyceps species for biotechnological applications

The use of Cordyceps species for the manufacture of natural products has been established; however, the tremendous advances observed in recent years in genetic engineering and molecular biology have revolutionized the optimization of Cordyceps as cell factories and drastically expanded the biotechnological potential of these fungi. Here, we present a review of systems and synthetic biology studies of Cordyceps and their implications for fungal biology and industrial applications. We summarize the current status of synthetic biology for enhancing targeted metabolites in Cordyceps species, such as cordycepin, adenosine, polysaccharide, and pentostatin. Progress in the systems and synthetic biology of Cordyceps provides a strategy for comprehensively comprehensive controlling efficient cell factories of natural bioproducts and novel synthetic biology toolbox for targeted engineering.

Network pharmacology and molecular docking analysis on the mechanism of Cordyceps militaris polysaccharide regulating immunity through TLR4/TNF-α pathwayss

The role of polysaccharide components in the immune system, especially immunomodulatory effects, has received increasing attention. In this context, in this study, network pharmacology was adopted to explore the hypothesis of a multitarget mechanism for immune modulation by Chrysalis polysaccharides. A total of 174 common targets were screened by network pharmacology, with the main ones being TNF, MAPK3, CASP3, VEGFA, and STAT3, mostly enriched in the Toll pathway. The molecular docking results showed that the polysaccharide fraction of Chrysalis binds well to TNF proteins. Besides, in vitro cellular assays were performed to verify the ability of Chrysalis polysaccharides to regulate macrophage polarization and to screen for macrophage surface receptors. Furthermore, in vivo experiments were conducted to prove the activation of TLR4 and TNF-α protein expression in mice by Chrysalis polysaccharide.

Increasing the production of the bioactive compounds in medicinal mushrooms: an omics perspective

Macroscopic fungi, mainly higher basidiomycetes and some ascomycetes, are considered medicinal mushrooms and have long been used in different areas due to their pharmaceutically/nutritionally valuable bioactive compounds. However, the low production of these bioactive metabolites considerably limits the utilization of medicinal mushrooms both in commerce and clinical trials. As a result, many attempts, ranging from conventional methods to novel approaches, have been made to improve their production. The novel strategies include conducting omics investigations, constructing genome-scale metabolic models, and metabolic engineering. So far, genomics and the combined use of different omics studies are the most utilized omics analyses in medicinal mushroom research (both with 31% contribution), while metabolomics (with 4% contribution) is the least. This article is the first attempt for reviewing omics investigations in medicinal mushrooms with the ultimate aim of bioactive compound overproduction. In this regard, the role of these studies and systems biology in elucidating biosynthetic pathways of bioactive compounds and their contribution to metabolic engineering will be highlighted. Also, limitations of omics investigations and strategies for overcoming them will be provided in order to facilitate the overproduction of valuable bioactive metabolites in these valuable organisms.

Construction of Cordycepin High-Production Strain and Optimization of Culture Conditions

This study aimed to increase cordycepin production by over-expressing bio-synthetic enzyme genes, including the adenylosuccinate synthase, adenylosuccinate lyase, and 5'-nucleotidase genes. Research data showed that the extracellular and intracellular cordycepin concent of 24 recombinant strains were higher than those of C. militaris WT, indicating that over-expression of key enzyme genes increased cordycepin production. Among them, the CM-adss-5 strain had highest cordycepin production, and the extracellular and intracellular cordycepin concent were 1119.75 ± 1.61 and 65.56 ± 0.97 mg/L, which were 1.26 and 2.61 times that of C. militaris WT. This study also optimized the culture conditions of CM-adss-5 strain through single factor experiments to obtain the best culture conditions. The best culture condition was 25 °C constant temperature, 180-rpm shaking culture, fermentation period 12 days, inoculate amount 5%, initial pH 6, seed age 108 h, and liquid volume 110/250 mL. Then, the extracellular and intracellular cordycepin content of CM-adss-5 strain reached 2581.96 ± 21.07 and 164.08 ± 1.44 mg/L, which were higher by 130.6% and 150.3%, respectively. Therefore, our research provides a way to efficiently produce cordycepin for the development of cordycepin and its downstream products.

Multiplex gene precise editing and large DNA fragment deletion by the CRISPR-Cas9-TRAMA system in edible mushroom Cordyceps militaris

The medicinal mushroom Cordyceps militaris contains abundant valuable bioactive ingredients that have attracted a great deal of attention in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. However, the development of this valuable mushroom faces the obstacle of lacking powerful genomic engineering tools. Here, by excavating the endogenous tRNA-processed element, introducing the extrachromosomal plasmid and alongside with homologous template, we develop a marker-free CRISPR-Cas9-TRAMA genomic editing system to achieve the multiplex gene precise editing and large synthetic cluster deletion in C. militaris. We further operated editing in the synthetases of cordycepin and ergothioneine to demonstrate the application of Cas9-TRAMA system in protein modification, promoter strength evaluation and 10 kb metabolic synthetic cluster deletion. The Cas9-TRAMA system provides a scalable method for excavating the valuable metabolic resource of medicinal mushrooms and constructing a mystical cellular pathway to elucidate the complex cell behaviours of the edible mushroom.

Targeting Oxidative Stress in Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Prospects of the Natural Products Approach

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), the second most common subtype of stroke, remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The pathological mechanism of ICH is very complex, and it has been demonstrated that oxidative stress (OS) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of ICH. Previous studies have shown that OS is a therapeutic target after ICH, and antioxidants have also achieved some benefits in the treatment of ICH. This review aimed to explore the promise of natural products therapy to target OS in ICH. We searched PubMed using the keywords “oxidative stress in intracerebral hemorrhage” and “natural products in intracerebral hemorrhage”. Numerous animal and cell studies on ICH have demonstrated the potent antioxidant properties of natural products, including polyphenols and phenolic compounds, terpenoids, alkaloids, etc. In summary, natural products such as antioxidants offer the possibility of treatment of OS after ICH. However, researchers still have a long way to go to apply these natural products for the treatment of ICH more widely in the clinic.

Enhancement of ergothioneine production by discovering and regulating its metabolic pathway in Cordyceps militaris

Background

Cordyceps militaris is a traditional medicinal fungus contains a variety of functional ingredients and has been developed as an important mushroom food recently. Ergothioneine, one of the antioxidative compounds in C. militaris, is benefits on aging-related diseases and therefore became a novel functional food nutritive fortifier. Currently, the main diet source of ergothioneine is mushroom food. However, the mushroom farming faces the problems such as rather low ingredient yield and spontaneous degeneration associated fruiting body that restricts large scale production of ergothioneine.

Results

In this study, we excavated the ergothioneine synthetases in mushroom and modified the genes in C. militaris to construct a new ergothioneine synthesis pathway. By further introducing this pathway into C. militaris genome, we succeeded to increase the ingredients’ production of engineering strain, the highest amount of ergothioneine and cordycepin were up to 2.5 g/kg dry weight and 2 g/L, respectively. Additionally, the expression of ergothioneine synthetase genes in the shape-mutated degenerative C. militaris could recover the ability of degenerative strain to produce high amount of ingredients, suggesting the metabolic regulation of ergothioneine might release the symptom of mushroom degeneration.

Conclusion

This study reveals a new pathway to fulfill the market needs of functional mushroom food and food fortifier ergothioneine. It implied the mycelium of C. militaris could be engineered as a novel medicinal mushroom food which could produce higher amount of valuable ingredients.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-022-01891-5.

Enhancing Genome-Scale Model by Integrative Exometabolome and Transcriptome: Unveiling Carbon Assimilation towards Sphingolipid Biosynthetic Capability of Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris is an industrially important fungus, which is often used in Asia as traditional medicine. There has been a published genome-scale metabolic model (GSMM) of C. militaris useful for predicting its growth behaviors; however, lipid metabolism, which plays a vital role in cellular functions, remains incomplete in the GSMM of C. militaris. A comprehensive study on C. militaris was thus performed by enhancing GSMM through integrative analysis of metabolic footprint and transcriptome data. Through the enhanced GSMM of C. militaris (called iPC1469), it contained 1469 genes, 1904 metabolic reactions and 1229 metabolites. After model evaluation, in silico growth simulation results agreed well with the experimental data of the fungal growths on different carbon sources. Beyond the model-driven integrative data analysis, interestingly, we found key metabolic responses in alteration of lipid metabolism in C. militaris upon different carbon sources. The sphingoid bases (e.g., sphinganine, sphingosine, and phytosphingosine) and ceramide were statistically significant accumulated in the xylose culture when compared with other cultures; this study suggests that the sphingolipid biosynthetic capability in C. militaris was dependent on the carbon source assimilated for cell growth; this finding provides a comprehensive basis for the sphingolipid biosynthesis in C. militaris that can help to further redesign its metabolic control for medicinal and functional food applications.

Cordyceps militaris as a Bio Functional Food Source: Pharmacological Potential, Anti-Inflammatory Actions and Related Molecular Mechanisms

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is a medicinal mushroom possessing a variety of biofunctionalities. It has several biologically important components such as polysaccharides and others. The diverse pharmacological potential of C. militaris has generated interest in reviewing the current scientific literature, with a particular focus on prevention and associated molecular mechanisms in inflammatory diseases. Due to rising global demand, research on C. militaris has continued to increase in recent years. C. militaris has shown the potential for inhibiting inflammation-related events, both in in vivo and in vitro experiments. Inflammation is a multifaceted biological process that contributes to the development and severity of diseases, including cancer, colitis, and allergies. These functions make C. militaris a suitable functional food for inhibiting inflammatory responses such as the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. Therefore, on the basis of existing information, the current study provides insights towards the understanding of anti-inflammatory activity-related mechanisms. This article presents a foundation for clinical use, and analyzes the roadmap for future studies concerning the medical use of C. militaris and its constituents in the next generation of anti-inflammatory drugs.

Enhancement of polysaccharides production using microparticle enhanced technology by Paraisaria dubia

Background

Polysaccharides are important active ingredients in Ophiocordyceps gracilis with many physiological functions. It can be obtained from the submerged fermentation by the anamorph (Paraisaria dubia) of Ophiocordyceps gracilis. However, it was found that the mycelial pellets of Paraisaria dubia were dense and increased in volume in the process of fermentation, and the center of the pellets was autolysis due to the lack of nutrient delivery, which extremely reduced the yield of polysaccharides. Therefore, it is necessary to excavate a fermentation strategy based on morphological regulation for Paraisaria dubia to promote polysaccharides accumulation.

Results

In this study, we developed a method for enhancing polysaccharides production by Paraisaria dubia using microparticle enhanced technology, talc microparticle as morphological inducer, and investigated the enhancement mechanisms by transcriptomics. The optimal size and dose of talc were found to be 2000 mesh and 15 g/L, which resulted in a high polysaccharides yield. It was found that the efficient synthesis of polysaccharides requires an appropriate mycelial morphology through morphological analysis of mycelial pellets. And, the polysaccharides synthesis was found to mainly rely on the ABC transporter-dependent pathway revealed by transcriptomics. This method was also showed excellent robustness in 5-L bioreactor, the maximum yields of intracellular polysaccharide and exopolysaccharides were 83.23 ± 1.4 and 518.50 ± 4.1 mg/L, respectively. And, the fermented polysaccharides were stable and showed excellent biological activity.

Conclusions

This study provides a feasible strategy for the efficient preparation of cordyceps polysaccharides via submerged fermentation with talc microparticles, which may also be applicable to similar macrofungi.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-021-01733-w.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Morphology Regulatory Mechanisms of Microparticles to Paraisaria dubia in Submerged Fermentation

Liquid submerged fermentation is an effective strategy to achieve large-scale production of active ingredients by macrofungi, and controlling mycelium morphology is a key factor restricting the development of this technology. Mining for superior morphological regulatory factors and elucidation of their regulatory mechanisms are vital for the further development of macrofungal fermentation technology. In this study, microparticles were used to control the morphology of Paraisaria dubia (P. dubia) in submerged fermentation, and the underlying regulatory mechanisms were revealed by transcriptomic. The relative frequency of S-type pellet diameter increased significantly from 7.14 to 88.31%, and biomass increased 1.54 times when 15 g/L talc was added. Transcriptome analysis showed that the morphological regulation of filamentous fungi was a complex biological process, which involved signal transduction, mycelium polar growth, cell wall synthesis and cell division, etc. It also showed a positive impact on the basic and secondary metabolism of P. dubia. We provided a theoretical basis for controlling the mycelium morphology of P. dubia in submerged fermentation, which will promote the development of macrofungal fermentation technology.

Isolation and immune activity of a new acidic Cordyceps militaris exopolysaccharide

A new type of acidic exopolysaccharide (AESP-II) was extracted and separated from the fermentation broth of Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris), which was further purified to elucidate its structural characteristics and immunological activity. AESP-II was confirmed to be an acidic pyranose with a molecular weight of 61.52 kDa, which consisted of mannose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose, galactose acid, N-acetyl-galactosamine, glucose, galactose and arabinose with a molar ratio of 1.07: 5.38: 1: 3.14: 2.23: 15: 6.09: and 4.04. Animal experiment results verified that AESP-II can significantly promote the proliferation of spleen T and B lymphocytes in mice with immune injury caused by cyclophosphamide (CTX). In particular, the promotion of B lymphocytes presented a dose-effect relationship. In addition, the levels of the cytokines IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ, which are mainly secreted by T lymphocytes, and immunoglobulin IgG, IgM and IgA, which are mainly secreted by B lymphocytes, were increased after AESP-II treatment. The above results suggest that fluid immunity is involved in the immunomodulatory function of AESP-II. Simultaneously, AESP-II was detected significantly to promote the phosphorylation expression of p38 kinase (p38), extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) by Western blot, further suggesting that the activation of the MAPK signaling pathway mediates the immunoregulatory function of AESP-II.

The polysaccharide-peptide complex from mushroom Cordyceps militaris ameliorates atherosclerosis by modulating the lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA axis

Polysaccharides from mushroom Cordyceps militaris are found to have pleiotropic bioactivities, suggesting a potential role in prevention of atherosclerosis. However, the underlying mechanisms of action are not clear. In this...

The Cordyceps militaris-Derived Polysaccharide CM1 Alleviates Atherosclerosis in LDLR(-/-) Mice by Improving Hyperlipidemia

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease has a high mortality worldwide. Our lab previously purified a polysaccharide designated as CM1 with (1→4)-β-D-Glcp and (1→2)-α-D-Manp glycosyls as the backbone. In this study, we investigated the anti-atherosclerosis effect of CM1 and the underlying mechanisms of action in a low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout (LDLR^(-/-) mouse model. It was found that CM1 significantly decreased the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. Mechanistically, CM1 enhanced plasma level of apolipoprotein A-I and decreased the plasma levels of triglyceride, apolipoprotein B, and total cholesterol. In the absence of LDLR, CM1 elevated the expression of very low-density lipoprotein receptor for liver uptake of plasma apolipoprotein B-containing particles and reduced hepatic triglyceride synthesis by inhibiting sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c. CM1 improved lipids excretion by increasing the liver X receptor α/ATP-binding cassette G5 pathway in small intestine. CM1 reduced lipogenesis and lipolysis by inhibiting peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and adipose triglyceride lipase in epididymal fat. Furthermore, CM1 improved lipid profile in C57BL/6J mice. Collectively, CM1 can modulate lipid metabolism by multiple pathways, contributing to reduced plasma lipid level and formation of atherosclerotic plaques in LDLR^(-/-) mice. This molecule could be explored as a potential compound for prevention and treatment of hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis.

Polysaccharide CM1 from Cordyceps militaris hinders adipocyte differentiation and alleviates hyperlipidemia in LDLR(+/-) hamsters

Background

Cordyceps militaris is cultured widely as an edible mushroom and accumulating evidence in mice have demonstrated that the polysaccharides of Cordyceps species have lipid-lowering effects. However, lipid metabolism in mice is significantly different from that in humans, making a full understanding of the mechanisms at play critical.

Methods

After 5 months, the hamsters were weighed and sampled under anesthesia after overnight fasting. The lipid-lowering effect and mechanisms of the polysaccharide CM1 was investigated by cellular and molecular technologies. Furthermore, the effect of the polysaccharide CM1 (100 μg/mL) on inhibiting adipocyte differentiation was investigated in vitro.

Results

CM1, a polysaccharide from C. militaris, significantly decreased plasma total cholesterol, triglyceride and epididymal fat index in LDLR^(+/−) hamsters, which have a human-like lipid profile. After 5 months’ administration, CM1 decreased the plasma level of apolipoprotein B48, modulated the expression of key genes and proteins in liver, small intestine, and epididymal fat. CM1 also inhibited preadipocyte differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells by downregulating the key genes involved in lipid droplet formation.

Conclusions

The polysaccharide CM1 lowers lipid and adipocyte differentiation by several pathways, and it has potential applications for hyperlipidemia prevention.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12944-021-01606-6.

Molecular Cloning, Expression and Macrophage Activation of an Immunoregulatory Protein from Cordyceps militaris

Protein components of C. militaris have been reported to possess various biological activities. In our previous research, a Cordyceps militaris-derived immunoregulatory protein (CMIP) was naturally isolated and showed the activity of inhibiting the metastasis of breast cancer cells. This study aimed to obtain recombinant CMIP (rCMIP) using recombinant expression and elucidate its ability to activate macrophages. Recombinant CMIP showed one band at approximately 15 kDa or 30 kDa, or two bands at 15 kDa and 30 kDa, under different denaturation conditions of electrophoresis. The cell binding assay showed that rCMIP selectively binds to the surface of macrophages. After adhesion, it did not induce the apoptosis of RAW 264.7 cells, but promoted their proliferation. Moreover, rCMIP significantly induced the expression of M1 macrophage polarization-related molecules. The mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of CD 86 was enhanced by 2.1-fold and 3.2-fold under 0.64 μM and 1.6 μM of rCMIP treatment, respectively. Cytokines typically expressed in M1 macrophages, such as TNF-α, iNOS, IL-6, CCL 4, CCL 5 and CXCL 10, were also considerably induced by rCMIP, while the expression of cytokines in typical M2 macrophages, like Arg-1, CCL17 and CCL22, were not changed or slightly decreased. Under rCMIP treatment, the release of NO was also appreciably induced. In the present study, we reported cloning, expression and functional characterization of rCMIP, which was naturally isolated from the fruiting body of C. militaris in our previous study. The data imply that rCMIP possesses immunomodulatory activity in macrophages.

Biomass and Cordycepin Production by the Medicinal Mushroom Cordyceps militaris-A Review of Various Aspects and Recent Trends towards the Exploitation of a Valuable Fungus

Cordyceps militaris is an entomopathogenic ascomycete with similar pharmacological importance to that of the wild caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis. C. militaris has attracted significant research and commercial interest due to its content in bioactive compounds beneficial to human health and the relative ease of cultivation under laboratory conditions. However, room for improvement exists in the commercial-scale cultivation of C. militaris and concerns issues principally related to appropriate strain selection, genetic degeneration of cultures, and substrate optimization. In particular, culture degeneration-usually expressed by abnormal fruit body formation and reduced sporulation-results in important economic losses and is holding back investors and potential growers (mainly in Western countries) from further developing this highly promising sector. In the present review, the main factors that influence the generation of biomass and metabolites (with emphasis on cordycepin biosynthesis) by C. militaris are presented and evaluated in conjunction with the use of a wide range of supplements or additives towards the enhancement of fungal productivity in large-scale cultivation processes. Moreover, physiological and genetic factors that increase or reduce the manifestation of strain degeneration in C. militaris are outlined. Finally, methodologies for developing protocols to be used in C. militaris functional biology studies are discussed.

Potential Therapeutic Effects of Natural Plant Compounds in Kidney Disease

Background: The blockade of the progression or onset of pathological events is essential for the homeostasis of an organism. Some common pathological mechanisms involving a wide range of diseases are the uncontrolled inflammatory reactions that promote fibrosis, oxidative reactions, and other alterations. Natural plant compounds (NPCs) are bioactive elements obtained from natural sources that can regulate physiological processes. Inflammation is recognized as an important factor in the development and evolution of chronic renal damage. Consequently, any compound able to modulate inflammation or inflammation-related processes can be thought of as a renal protective agent and/or a potential treatment tool for controlling renal damage. The objective of this research was to review the beneficial effects of bioactive natural compounds on kidney damage to reveal their efficacy as demonstrated in clinical studies. Methods: This systematic review is based on relevant studies focused on the impact of NPCs with therapeutic potential for kidney disease treatment in humans. Results: Clinical studies have evaluated NPCs as a different way to treat or prevent renal damage and appear to show some benefits in improving OS, inflammation, and antioxidant capacity, therefore making them promising therapeutic tools to reduce or prevent the onset and progression of KD pathogenesis. Conclusions: This review shows the promising clinical properties of NPC in KD therapy. However, more robust clinical trials are needed to establish their safety and therapeutic effects in the area of renal damage.

Therapeutic effects of Chinese herbal medicines and their extracts on diabetes

With the improvement of people's living standards and changes in the environment, the incidence of diabetes has increased rapidly. It has gradually become one of the main diseases threatening the health and life of modern people, bringing a great burden to the society. Although the existing treatment methods can effectively control the symptoms of diabetes and delay its progression, they have not brought satisfactory improvement in the quality of life and treatment of patients. Traditional Chinese herbal medicines and their extracts combine thousands of years of experience and the scientific basis provided by modern experimental research, which is expected to bring a qualitative leap in the clinical management of diabetes. Therefore, this article systematically reviews studies on the effects of Chinese herbal medicine and its extracts on diabetes and its complications, and aims to bring new ideas and options for the clinical treatment of diabetes.

Improvement of cordycepin production by an isolated Paecilomyces hepiali mutant from combinatorial mutation breeding and medium screening

Cordycepin is a major bioactive compound found in Cordyceps sinensis that exhibits a broad spectrum of biological activities. Here a Paecilomyces hepiali OR-1 strain was initially isolated from plateau soil for the bioproduction of cordycepin. Subsequently, strain modification including ⁶⁰Co γ-ray and ultraviolet irradiation were employed to increase the cordycepin titer, resulted in a high-yield mutant strain P. hepiali ZJB18001 with the cordycepin content of 0.61 mg/g_DCW, showing a 2.3-fold to that from the wild strain (0.26 mg/g_DCW). Furthermore, medium screening based on Box-Behnken design and the response surface methodology facilitated the enhancement of cordycepin yield to the value of 0.96 mg/g_DCW at 25 °C for 5 days in submerged cultivation with an optimized medium composition. The high cordycepin yield, rapid growth rate and stable genetic characteristics of P. hepiali ZJB18001 are beneficial in terms of costs and time for the industrialization of cordycepin production.

Fighting Bisphenol A-Induced Male Infertility: The Power of Antioxidants

Bisphenol A (BPA), a well-known endocrine disruptor present in epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics, negatively disturbs the male reproductive system affecting male fertility. In vivo studies showed that BPA exposure has deleterious effects on spermatogenesis by disturbing the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis and inducing oxidative stress in testis. This compound seems to disrupt hormone signalling even at low concentrations, modifying the levels of inhibin B, oestradiol, and testosterone. The adverse effects on seminal parameters are mainly supported by studies based on urinary BPA concentration, showing a negative association between BPA levels and sperm concentration, motility, and sperm DNA damage. Recent studies explored potential approaches to treat or prevent BPA-induced testicular toxicity and male infertility. Since the effect of BPA on testicular cells and spermatozoa is associated with an increased production of reactive oxygen species, most of the pharmacological approaches are based on the use of natural or synthetic antioxidants. In this review, we briefly describe the effects of BPA on male reproductive health and discuss the use of antioxidants to prevent or revert the BPA-induced toxicity and infertility in men.

Physicochemical, functional and structural properties of the major protein fractions extracted from Cordyceps militaris fruit body

The physicochemical and functional as well as structural properties of major protein fractions (albumin, globulin, glutelin) sequentially extracted in water, salt, alkaline solution respectively from Cordyceps militaris Minfu20 fruit body were investigated. The glutelin (43.11%, w/w) was the predominant protein component of C. militaris fruit body followed by albumin (36.47%) and globulin (17.94%). The three proteins extracted from different solvents showed different characteristics, which were related to the alternation of amino acid composition, surface hydrophobicity, and structural feature. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) showed that the albumin and globulin mainly consisted of polypeptides with size < 20 kDa. The glutelin showed serious staining on the lane which may have a relatively bigger molecular weight. Intrinsic fluorescence intensity (FI) suggested glutelin contained more unfolding conformations (highest FI) which were probably resulted in a better foaming capacity of 151% and emulsion formation with the smallest size oil droplets (10.410 µm). The protein fractions showed great nutritional quality since they satisfied all recommended essential amino acid allowances for adults of Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO). Therefore, Cordyceps militaris Minfu20 fruit body proteins have potential alternative renewable edible fungi (mushroom) protein and could be used effectively as a food ingredient to improve food nutrition and product diversification compared with plant proteins.

Natural cordycepin induces apoptosis and suppresses metastasis in breast cancer cells by inhibiting the Hedgehog pathway

In the study, we investigated the role of the hedgehog (Hh) pathway in cordycepin's effects on human breast cancer cells, with respect to cell growth, apoptosis and metastasis. We found cordycepin to have low toxicity but significant anticancer effects. Cordycepin-induced apoptosis led to increased PUMA, CYTO-C, FAS, DR4/5, and cleaved caspase-3; and decreased BCL-2, XIAP and PDGFR-α. Cordycepin inhibited metastasis, which was associated with up-regulated E-cadherin, and down-regulated N-cadherin, SNAIL, SLUG and ZEB1. Cordycepin also inhibited expression of Hh pathway components and GLI transcriptional activity. Inversely, knockout of GLI blocked cordycepin-mediated effects on the apoptotic, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and Notch pathways, which indicates that GLI is crucial for cordycepin's effects against breast cancer. Inhibition of GLI enhanced cordycepin's effect on breast cancer cell growth. To our knowledge, this is the first study of cordycepin's effect on the Hh pathway in breast cancer, and provides preliminary data for the in vivo study, and possible therapeutic use, of cordycepin.

Trends in the Immunomodulatory Effects of Cordyceps militaris: Total Extracts, Polysaccharides and Cordycepin

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is a fungus with a long history of widespread use in folk medicine, and its biological and medicinal functions are well studied. A crucial pharmacological effect of C. militaris is immunomodulation. In this review, we catalog the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris, namely total extracts, polysaccharides and cordycepin. Total extracts obtained using water or 50% ethyl alcohol and polysaccharides from C. militaris were discovered to tend to promote type 1 immunity, whereas total extracts obtained using 70-80% ethyl alcohol and cordycepin from C. militaris were more likely to promote type 2 immunity. This article is the first to classify the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris. In addition, we discovered a relationship between different segments or extracts and differing types of immunity. This review can provide the readers a comprehensive understanding on the immunomodulatory effects of the precious folk medicine and guidance on its use for both health people and those with an immunodeficiency.

Cordycepin for Health and Wellbeing: A Potent Bioactive Metabolite of an Entomopathogenic Cordyceps Medicinal Fungus and Its Nutraceutical and Therapeutic Potential

Cordyceps is a rare naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungus usually found at high altitudes on the Himalayan plateau and a well-known medicinal mushroom in traditional Chinese medicine. Cordyceps contains various bioactive components, out of which, cordycepin is considered most vital, due to its utmost therapeutic as well as nutraceutical potential. Moreover, the structure similarity of cordycepin with adenosine makes it an important bioactive component, with difference of only hydroxyl group, lacking in the 3′ position of its ribose moiety. Cordycepin is known for various nutraceutical and therapeutic potential, such as anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, anti-aging, anticancer, antiviral, hepato-protective, hypo-sexuality, cardiovascular diseases, antimalarial, anti-osteoporotic, anti-arthritic, cosmeceutical etc. which makes it a most valuable medicinal mushroom for helping in maintaining good health. In this review, effort has been made to bring altogether the possible wide range of cordycepin’s nutraceutical potential along with its pharmacological actions and possible mechanism. Additionally, it also summarizes the details of cordycepin based nutraceuticals predominantly available in the market with expected global value. Moreover, this review will attract the attention of food scientists, nutritionists, pharmaceutical and food industries to improve the use of bioactive molecule cordycepin for nutraceutical purposes with commercialization to aid and promote healthy lifestyle, wellness and wellbeing.

Isaria tenuipes Peck, an entomopathogenic fungus from Darjeeling Himalaya: Evaluation of in-vitro antiproliferative and antioxidant potential of its mycelium extract

BACKGROUND

Isaria tenuipes is one of the potent species in the members of the genus Isaria, which is well reported to possess multiple bioactive substances of therapeutic importance. Therefore, an in vitro experimental study was carried to evaluate the bioactivities of the crude methanolic extract from the mycelium of this fungus.

METHODS

The fungus was authenticated through morphological characters and the species discrepancy was resolved using the nuclear rDNA ITS sequence. The methanolic extract was fingerprinted by FTIR. The antioxidant components in terms of total phenols and flavonoids were determined as gallic acid and quercetin equivalents respectively. Antioxidant activities of the methanolic extract was assessed using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2, 2/-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) radical cation (ABTS0+), Fe2+chelating activity, and hydroxyl radical scavenging assays. Cytotoxicity of the extract was determined by [3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] (MTT) assay on three cancer cell lines: HeLa, HepG2, and PC3. Apoptosis was further studied by propidium iodide (PI) and Annexin-V/PI staining flow cytometric analysis. Anti-proliferation capacity was studied by colony-forming assay.

RESULTS

In the present study total phenol content of the dried methanol extract was 148.09 ± 3.51μg gallic acid equivalent/mg and flavonoid was 9.02±0.95 μg quercetin/mg. The antioxidant activities of methanol-water extract (8:2 v/v) from cultured mycelia of I. tenuipes investigated and evaluated with 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay revealed IC50 value of 5.04mg/ml with an inhibition rate of 74.77% at 10mg/ml and with an iron-chelating assay the chelating ability was recorded to be 86.76% where the IC50 value was 4.43 mg/ml. In comparison among the antioxidant assays, 2,2/-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) radical cation (ABTS0+) and hydroxyl assay exhibited radical scavenging rate of 44.42% and 49.82% respectively at a concentration of 10 mg/ml. The IC50 value of the extract in MTT assay was 43.45μg/ml with HeLa cells, 119.33μg/ml with PC3 cells, and 125.55μg/ml with HepG2 cells.

CONCLUSION

In this study, it can be concluded that the crude methanolic extract exhibited potent antioxidant and antiproliferative activities suggesting natural antioxidative and antiproliferative agents.

Antithrombotic and Antiplatelet Effects of Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps is a genus of ascomycete fungi and is well known as one of the important medical fungi in Chinese, Korea, and other Asian countries, because of its various beneficial effects on human health. The pharmacological activities of Cordyceps extract are mainly focused on anti-cancer, anti-metastatic, and immune modulating effects. In the present study, we investigated whether the antiplatelet effect of ethanol extract of cultured Cordyceps militaris (CMEE) with FeCl3-induced arterial thrombosis model. We observed that CMEE exhibited a significant inhibitory effect against ADP and collagen-induced platelet aggregation. However, there were no significant differences in prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT). These results suggest that antithrombotic activity of CMEE is related to antiplatelet effect rather than anticoagulation effect, and CMEE may be a positive effect on improving blood circulation against vessel injury and occlusion.

Biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1 with wild Cordyceps sinensis and Ascomycota sp. and its antihyperlipidemic effects on the diet-induced cholesterol of zebrafish

Biotransformation major ginsenoside into minor ginsenoside via microbial fermentation has been proposed as a viable option to produce minor ginsenoside, because of its biological activity superior to major ginsenoside. Cordyceps sinensis contains a complex enzymatic system and many ingredients with medicinal value that could be useful tools for biotransformation applications in the ginseng industry. Wild C. sinensis and Ascomycota sp. were collected from Changbai Mountain and identified. Analysis by UPLC-MS and HPLC indicates that the underlying pathway of major ginsenoside Rb1 during fermentation with strains was Rb1→Rd→F2→CK and Rb1→Rd→Rg3. C. sinensis and Ascomycota sp. can be applied to minor ginsenoside preparation in the food and medical industries. The antihyperlipidemic effects of Rb1 were further screened from fermentation in larvae zebrafish based on the fluorescence intensity. In the adult zebrafish model, treatment with high-dose ginsenoside Rb1 group exhibited a significant decrease in the plasma total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) levels by 36.49% (p < .05) and 29.97% (p < .05), respectively, compared with high cholesterol group (HC). Furthermore, ginsenoside Rb1 treatment decreased the mRNA levels of LDLR and SREBP2 in the adult zebrafish liver. Ginsenoside Rb1 diet supplement significantly increased the mRNA expression of HMGCR and CYP7A1. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rb1 attenuates hypercholesterolemia via the downregulation of cholesterol synthesis and assembly or secretion of lipoproteins as well as the upregulation of cholesterol transport and efflux, providing a novel idea of ginsenoside keeping cholesterol levels down for the clinical application. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Wild Cordyceps sinensis has the potential to be applied to the preparation for minor ginsenoside. Furthermore, the final fermentation product has more functional characteristics, including cordyceps acid, cordycepin, and adenosine. Wild Cordyceps sinensis and Ascomycota sp. could potentially be employed in the food and medical industries.

Cordycepin Resensitizes T24R2 Cisplatin-Resistant Human Bladder Cancer Cells to Cisplatin by Inactivating Ets-1 Dependent MDR1 Transcription

Tumor cell resistance to anti-cancer drugs is a major obstacle in tumor therapy. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of cordycepin-mediated resensitization to cisplatin in T24R2 cells, a T24-derived cell line. Treatment with cordycepin or cisplatin (2 μg/mL) alone failed to induce cell death in T24R2 cells, but combination treatment with these drugs significantly induced apoptosis through mitochondrial pathways, including depolarization of mitochondrial membranes, decrease in anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, and Mcl-1, and increase in pro-apoptotic proteins Bak and Bax. High expression levels of MDR1 were the cause of cisplatin resistance in T24R2 cells, and cordycepin significantly reduced MDR1 expression through inhibition of MDR1 promoter activity. MDR1 promoter activity was dependent on transcription factor Ets-1 in T24R2 cells. Although correlation exists between MDR1 and Ets-1 expression in bladder cancer patients, active Ets-1, Thr38 phosphorylated form (pThr38), was critical to induce MDR1 expression. Cordycepin decreased pThr-38 Ets-1 levels and reduced MDR1 transcription, probably through its effects on PI3K signaling, inducing the resensitization of T24R2 cells to cisplatin. The results suggest that cordycepin effectively resensitizes cisplatin-resistant bladder cancer cells to cisplatin, thus serving as a potential strategy for treatment of cancer in patients with resistance to anti-cancer drugs.

Probing Carbon Utilization of Cordyceps militaris by Sugar Transportome and Protein Structural Analysis

Beyond comparative genomics, we identified 85 sugar transporter genes in Cordyceps militaris, clustering into nine subfamilies as sequence- and phylogenetic-based functional classification, presuming the versatile capability of the fungal growths on a range of sugars. Further analysis of the global gene expression patterns of C. militaris showed 123 genes were significantly expressed across the sucrose, glucose, and xylose cultures. The sugar transporters specific for pentose were then identified by gene-set enrichment analysis. Of them, the putative pentose transporter, CCM_06358 gene, was highest expressed in the xylose culture, and its functional role in xylose transport was discovered by the analysis of conserved structural motifs. In addition, a battery of molecular modeling methods, including homology modeling, transport pathway analysis, residue interaction network combined with molecular mechanics Poisson–Boltzmann surface area simulation (MM-PBSA), was implemented for probing the structure and function of the selected pentose transporter (CCM_06358) as a representative of sugar transportome in C. militaris. Considering the network bottlenecks and structural organizations, we further identified key amino acids (Phe38 and Trp441) and their interactions with other residues, contributing the xylose transport function, as verified by binding free energy calculation. The strategy used herein generated remarkably valuable biological information, which is applicable for the study of sugar transportome and the structure engineering of targeted transporter proteins that might link to the production of bioactive compounds derived from xylose metabolism, such as cordycepin.

Cordyceps polysaccharide ameliorates airway inflammation in an ovalbumin-induced mouse model of asthma via TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway

Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by airflow obstruction, airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), airway inflammation, and mucus overproduction. Cordyceps polysaccharide (CPS) is one of the main bioactive compounds of Cordyceps militarisis, a traditional Chinese medicine. In this study, we established a mouse model of asthma using ovalbumin (OVA) challenge and evaluated the potential regulatory effect of CPS (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) on asthmatic mice. These results showed that the asthmatic mice treated with CPS suppressed the secretion of eotaxin, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and IFN-γ in the blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and decreased serum IgE levels compared to the vehicle-treated mice. CPS also alleviated inflammatory cell infiltration, goblet cell hyperplasia, and the increases of inflammatory cells in the mouse model of asthma. In addition, OVA-induced AHR was inhibited by CPS treatment. Further analyses of protein expression revealed that CPS inhibited the activation of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1)/Smad pathway in mice with asthma. These findings indicated that CPS might serve as a potential therapeutic agent for the management of allergic asthma.

Genome mining and biosynthesis of the Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitor beauveriolide I and III in Cordyceps militaris

Ascomycete fungi Cordyceps are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine, and numerous investigations have been carried out to uncover their biological activities. However, primary researches on the physiological effects of Cordyceps were committed using crude extracts. At present, there are only a few compounds which were comprehensively characterized from Cordyceps, partial owing to the low production. In order to scientifically take advantage of Cordyceps, we used the strategy of genome mining to discover bioactive compounds from Cordyceps militaris. We found the putative biosynthetic gene cluster of the acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase inhibitor beauveriolides in the genome of C. militaris, and produced the compounds by heterologous expression in Aspergillus nidulans. Production of beauveriolide I and III also was detected in both ferment mycelia and fruiting bodies of C. militaris. The possible biosynthetic pathway was proposed. Our studies unveil the active compounds of C. militaris against atherosclerosis and Alzheimer's disease and provide the enzyme resources for the biosynthesis of new cyclodepsipeptide molecules.

Cordycepin attenuates Salivary Hypofunction through the Prevention of Oxidative Stress in Human Submandibular Gland Cells

Xerostomia (dry mouth) is a significant age-related condition. Meanwhile, cordycepin, the natural therapeutic agent, has demonstrated an anti-aging effect. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the preventive effects of cordycepin on secretory function in an in vitro model of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced salivary hypofunction. After being exposed to H₂O₂, human submandibular gland (HSG) cells were treated with various concentrations of cordycepin (6.25-50 µM) for 24, 48, and 72h. To evaluate cell proliferation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide and 2, 7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate assays were performed. The amylase activity was kinetically measured by 2-chloro-p-nitrophenol linked with maltotrioside. The expression of salivary, antioxidant and apoptotic markers at mRNA and protein levels were performed by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunofluorescence analysis, respectively. We demonstrated that cordycepin (6.25-25 µM) contributed to significant increases in expression of the salivary marker genes, alpha-amylase 1 (AMY1A) and aquaporin-5 (AQP5), and in amylase secretion without changes in cell viability. Under oxidative stress, HSG cells showed remarkable dysfunction. Cordycepin rescued the protective effects partially by decreasing ROS generation and restoring the expression of the salivary proteins, AMY and AQP5 via anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic activity. In addition, the amount of amylase that was secreted from HSG cells cultured in cordycepin was increased. In conclusion, cordycepin demonstrated a protective effect on H₂O₂ -induced HSG cells by decreasing ROS generation and upregulating the salivary function markers, AMY1A and AQP5, at both the transcriptional and translational levels.

Structural characterization and immune-enhancing activity of a novel high-molecular-weight polysaccharide from Cordyceps militaris

A novel homogeneous polysaccharide (CMP-III) was extracted and purified from C. militaris. Structural characterization revealed that CMP-III had an average molecular weight of 4.796 × 10⁴ kDa and consisted of glucose, mannose and galactose with the molar ratio of 8.09:1.00:0.25. The main linkage types of CMP-III consisted of 1 → 4)-α-D-Glc (70.08%), 1 → 4,6)-α-D-Man (9.59%), 1→)-α-D-Man (10.79%) and 1 → 2,6)-α-D-Gal (3.93%) based on methylation and NMR analysis. The immunomodulatory assay indicated that CMP-III significantly promoted macrophage phagocytosis and secretion of NO, TNF-α and IL-6. Further study suggested that macrophage activated by CMP-III involved mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathways. Overall, these results suggested that CMP-III could be developed as a potent immunomodulatory agent for use in functional foods and dietary supplements.

Fermented Korean Red Ginseng Extract Enriched in Rd and Rg3 Protects against Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease through Regulation of mTORC1

The fermentation of Korean red ginseng (RG) increases the bioavailability and efficacy of RG, which has a protective role in various diseases. However, the ginsenoside-specific molecular mechanism of the fermented RG with Cordyceps militaris (CRG) has not been elucidated in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). A mouse model of NAFLD was induced by a fast-food diet (FFD) and treated with CRG (100 or 300 mg/kg) for the last 8 weeks. CRG-mediated signaling was assessed in the liver cells isolated from mice. CRG administration significantly reduced the FFD-induced steatosis, liver injury, and inflammation, indicating that CRG confers protective effects against NAFLD. Of note, an extract of CRG contains a significantly increased amount of ginsenosides (Rd and Rg3) after bioconversion compared with that of conventional RG. Moreover, in vitro treatment with Rd or Rg3 produced anti-steatotic effects in primary hepatocytes. Mechanistically, CRG protected palmitate-induced activation of mTORC1 and subsequent inhibition of mitophagy and PPARα signaling. Similar to that noted in hepatocytes, CRG exerted anti-inflammatory activity through mTORC1 inhibition-mediated M2 polarization. In conclusion, CRG inhibits lipid-mediated pathologic activation of mTORC1 in hepatocytes and macrophages, which in turn prevents NAFLD development. Thus, the administration of CRG may be an alternative for the prevention of NAFLD.

Optimizing cultivation of Cordyceps militaris for fast growth and cordycepin overproduction using rational design of synthetic media

Cordyceps militaris is an entomopathogenic fungus which is often used in Asia as a traditional medicine developed from age-old wisdom. Presently, cordycepin from C. militaris is a great interest in medicinal applications. However, cellular growth of C. militaris and the association with cordycepin production remain poorly understood. To explore the metabolism of C. militaris as potential cell factories in medical and biotechnology applications, this study developed a high-quality genome-scale metabolic model of C. militaris, iNR1329, based on its genomic content and physiological data. The model included a total of 1329 genes, 1821 biochemical reactions, and 1171 metabolites among 4 different cellular compartments. Its in silico growth simulation results agreed well with experimental data on different carbon sources. iNR1329 was further used for optimizing the growth and cordycepin overproduction using a novel approach, POPCORN, for rational design of synthetic media. In addition to the high-quality GEM iNR1329, the presented POPCORN approach was successfully used to rationally design an optimal synthetic medium with C:N ratio of 8:1 for enhancing 3.5-fold increase in cordycepin production. This study thus provides a novel insight into C. militaris physiology and highlights a potential GEM-driven method for synthetic media design and metabolic engineering application. The iNR1329 and the POPCORN approach are available at the GitHub repository: https://github.com/sysbiomics/Cordyceps_militaris-GEM.

Purification and structural characterization of a novel natural pigment: cordycepene from edible and medicinal mushroom Cordyceps militaris

In the present work, a novel cordycepic pigment was successfully isolated and identified from Cordyceps militaris, as well as named as cordycepene (C₁₄H₁₇N₁O₄), according to the long unsaturated conjugated polyene structural characteristic. Cordycepene is sensitive to light, high temperature (≥ 60 °C), and acidic condition (pH ≤ 3), but possesses high stability against metal ions, and under alkaline and neutral conditions. Cordycepene shows a comparable DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical-scavenging activity at higher concentration (≥ 2 mg/mL) to vitamin C. Cordycepene promotes the growth of HSF (human skin fibroblast cell) after incubation for 72 h, and has an ability to repair the UV light-treated HSF cells. In addition, cordycepene increases the antioxidant activity (SOD, superoxide dismutase; GSH-Px, glutathione peroxidase; CAT, catalase) and decreases MDA (malondialdehyde) level, indicating that cordycepene inhibits the photochemical senescence of HSF by enhancing the antioxidant defense system. The discovery of cordycepene can provide a basis for research on light incubation and the accumulation of yellow pigment (carotenoids) from C. militaris.

Biodiversity of Entomopathogenic Fungi in the Soils of South China

The southern part of China, located in tropical and south subtropical areas has unique natural environments, but the distributions of entomopathogenic fungi (EFs) in the soil are not clear. In this research, 198 soil samples were collected from the four Provinces (Autonomous Region) of South China. The results indicated that a total of 292 fungal isolates were obtained from 176 soil samples. Then, based on the morphological and rDNA-ITS sequences analysis, 213 EFs isolates of 19 species in 12 genera were identified. Furthermore, Purpureocillium lilacinum with 75 isolates was recognized as the absolutely dominant EF species, while Isaria javanica, Metarhizium anisopliae, and Beauveria bassiana (respectively with 29, 26, and 26 isolates) were the richer species. The data also indicated that Guangxi Province has the best EFs diversity with the Shannon–Wiener index (SWI) of 2.29, the soils covered with grass had the best EFs diversity with the 2.14 SWI, while the orchard and fallow land had the lowest SWI of 1.52, which suggested that the diversity of plants and insects on ground, as well as the massive application of broad-spectrum fungicides, affect the EFs diversity in the soil. Finally, the rare species, Nectria mauritiicola and Scopulariopsis brumptii were first reported about their entomopathogenic activities against Bemisia tabaci. Our experiment will give new insights to the understanding of EFs distribution characteristics and their biodiversity conservation.