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Loda A, Semeraro F, Parolini S, Ronca R, Rezzola S. Cancer stem-like cells in uveal melanoma: novel insights and therapeutic implications. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2024; 1879:189104. [PMID: 38701937 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2024.189104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common primary ocular tumor in the adult population. Even though these primary tumors are successfully treated in 90% of cases, almost 50% of patients ultimately develop metastasis, mainly in the liver, via hematological dissemination, with a median survival spanning from 6 to 12 months after diagnosis. In this context, chemotherapy regimens and molecular targeted therapies have demonstrated poor response rates and failed to improve survival. Among the multiple reasons for therapy failure, the presence of cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) represents the main cause of resistance to anticancer therapies. In the last few years, the existence of CSCs in UM has been demonstrated both in preclinical and clinical studies, and new molecular pathways and mechanisms have been described for this subpopulation of UM cells. Here, we will discuss the state of the art of CSC biology and their potential exploitation as therapeutic target in UM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Loda
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Francesco Semeraro
- Eye Clinic, Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Radiological Sciences and Public Health, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Silvia Parolini
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy; National Center for Gene Therapy and Drugs based on RNA Technology - CN3, Padova, Italy; Consorzio Interuniversitario per le Biotecnologie (CIB), Italy
| | - Roberto Ronca
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy; Consorzio Interuniversitario per le Biotecnologie (CIB), Italy
| | - Sara Rezzola
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy.
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2
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Hameed S, Yu AC, Almadani B, Abualkhair S, Ahmad K, Zauli G. Genetic Risk Factors and Clinical Outcomes in Childhood Eye Cancers: A Review. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:276. [PMID: 38540335 PMCID: PMC10970510 DOI: 10.3390/genes15030276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Childhood eye cancers, although rare, present substantial health challenges, affecting the pediatric population with a remarkable impact on their lives and families. This comprehensive review provides insights into the various types of ocular tumors, primarily focusing on malignant eye tumors, their genetic predispositions, and advancements in managing these conditions. Understanding the genetic risk factors is crucial for early detection, risk assessment, and the development of targeted therapies. This review discusses genome-wide association (GWAS) and next-generation sequencing (NGS) studies to find common and rare genetic variants. Furthermore, it also explores the outcomes and implications of these genetic discoveries in treating pediatric ocular cancer. These findings underscore the significance of genetic research in guiding early interventions and improving outcomes in children with ocular cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Hameed
- Research Department, King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital, Riyadh 11462, Saudi Arabia; (B.A.); (S.A.); (K.A.); (G.Z.)
| | - Angeli Christy Yu
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Bashaer Almadani
- Research Department, King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital, Riyadh 11462, Saudi Arabia; (B.A.); (S.A.); (K.A.); (G.Z.)
| | - Shereen Abualkhair
- Research Department, King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital, Riyadh 11462, Saudi Arabia; (B.A.); (S.A.); (K.A.); (G.Z.)
| | - Khabir Ahmad
- Research Department, King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital, Riyadh 11462, Saudi Arabia; (B.A.); (S.A.); (K.A.); (G.Z.)
| | - Giorgio Zauli
- Research Department, King Khaled Eye Specialist Hospital, Riyadh 11462, Saudi Arabia; (B.A.); (S.A.); (K.A.); (G.Z.)
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3
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Bansal R, Spivey BE, Honavar SG. Susceptible to dynamism, immune to stagnancy - Martine Johanna Jager. Indian J Ophthalmol 2023; 71:2934-2936. [PMID: 37530258 PMCID: PMC10538822 DOI: 10.4103/ijo.ijo_1825_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Bruce E Spivey
- Pacific Vision Foundation, San Francisco, California, USA
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4
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HajiEsmailPoor Z, Tabnak P, Ahmadzadeh B, Ebrahimi SS, Faal B, Mashatan N. Role of hedgehog signaling related non-coding RNAs in developmental and pathological conditions. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 153:113507. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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Exploring the FGF/FGFR System in Ocular Tumors: New Insights and Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073835. [PMID: 35409195 PMCID: PMC8998873 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 03/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular tumors are a family of rare neoplasms that develop in the eye. Depending on the type of cancer, they mainly originate from cells localized within the retina, the uvea, or the vitreous. Even though current treatments (e.g., radiotherapy, transpupillary thermotherapy, cryotherapy, chemotherapy, local resection, or enucleation) achieve the control of the local tumor in the majority of treated cases, a significant percentage of patients develop metastatic disease. In recent years, new targeting therapies and immuno-therapeutic approaches have been evaluated. Nevertheless, the search for novel targets and players is eagerly required to prevent and control tumor growth and metastasis dissemination. The fibroblast growth factor (FGF)/FGF receptor (FGFR) system consists of a family of proteins involved in a variety of physiological and pathological processes, including cancer. Indeed, tumor and stroma activation of the FGF/FGFR system plays a relevant role in tumor growth, invasion, and resistance, as well as in angiogenesis and dissemination. To date, scattered pieces of literature report that FGFs and FGFRs are expressed by a significant subset of primary eye cancers, where they play relevant and pleiotropic roles. In this review, we provide an up-to-date description of the relevant roles played by the FGF/FGFR system in ocular tumors and speculate on its possible prognostic and therapeutic exploitation.
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Vlachos DE, Thomakos N, Haidopoulos D, Pergialiotis V, Theodoulidis V, Protopapas A, Rodolakis A. Ocular metastasis of primary gynecological malignancies, a rare but not insignificant entity: A systematic review. Niger J Clin Pract 2022; 25:739-746. [DOI: 10.4103/njcp.njcp_1763_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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7
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Katopodis P, Khalifa MS, Anikin V. Molecular characteristics of uveal melanoma and intraocular tumors. Oncol Lett 2021; 21:9. [PMID: 33240415 PMCID: PMC7681201 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2020.12270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant melanomas within the eye present different types of metabolic and metastatic behavior. Uveal melanoma (UM) affects a quarter of a million individuals in the USA; however, the molecular pathogenesis is not well understood. Although UV radiation is a risk factor in cutaneous melanomas, it is not crucial for UM progression. Apart from chromosomal abnormalities, numerous major tumorigenic signaling pathways, including the PI3K/Akt, MAPK/ERK, Ras-association domain family 1 isoform A and Yes-associated protein/transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif signaling pathways, are associated with intraocular tumors. The present review describes the current insights regarding these signaling pathways that regulate the cell cycle and apoptosis, and could be used as potential targets for the treatment of UMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Periklis Katopodis
- College of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Brunel University, Uxbridge, London UB8 3PH, UK
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, The Royal Brompton and Harefield National Health Service Foundation Trust, Harefield Hospital, London UB9 6JH, UK
| | - Mohammad S. Khalifa
- College of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Brunel University, Uxbridge, London UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Vladimir Anikin
- College of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Brunel University, Uxbridge, London UB8 3PH, UK
- Division of Thoracic Surgery, The Royal Brompton and Harefield National Health Service Foundation Trust, Harefield Hospital, London UB9 6JH, UK
- Department of Oncology and Reconstructive Surgery, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow 119146, Russia
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Ganti A, Plitt MA, Kuan EC, Kuhar HN, Batra PS, Tajudeen BA. Risk of second primary malignancy in patients with sinonasal tumors: a population-based cohort study. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol 2018; 8:756-762. [DOI: 10.1002/alr.22092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2017] [Revised: 12/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin Ganti
- Rush Medical College; Rush University; Chicago IL
| | - Max A. Plitt
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery; Rush University Medical Center; Chicago IL
- Rush Center for Skull Base and Pituitary Surgery; Rush University Medical Center; Chicago IL
| | - Edward C. Kuan
- Division of Rhinology, Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery; University of Pennsylvania; Philadelphia PA
| | | | - Pete S. Batra
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery; Rush University Medical Center; Chicago IL
- Rush Center for Skull Base and Pituitary Surgery; Rush University Medical Center; Chicago IL
| | - Bobby A. Tajudeen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery; Rush University Medical Center; Chicago IL
- Rush Center for Skull Base and Pituitary Surgery; Rush University Medical Center; Chicago IL
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Meng Q, Zhao Y, An L, Li X, Liu P. Inhibitory effect of bufalin on retinoblastoma cells (HXO-RB44) via the independent mitochondrial and death receptor pathway. Am J Transl Res 2016; 8:4968-4974. [PMID: 27904697 PMCID: PMC5126339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Cinobufacini (Huachansu) is a Chinese medicine prepared from the skin of Bufo bufo gargarizans Cantor (Bufonidae), and has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine. In the present study, the anti-retinoblastoma constituent bufalin obtained from Cinobufacini was investigated. Treatment of human retinoblastoma (HXO-RB44) cells with bufalin induced apoptosis which was accompanied by a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of caspase-9, caspase-8 and caspase-3, as well as changes in the expression of cytochrome C. Bufalin induced the cleavage of caspase-3 and apoptosis, and it was inhibited by both Z-LETD-FMK and Z-IETD-FMK treatment. Taken together, these results demonstrate that bufalin-induced apoptosis in human retinoblastoma (HXO-RB44) cells involved both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingfeng Meng
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical UniversityHarbin 150001, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Yan Zhao
- Department of Allergy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical UniversityHarbin 150001, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - LiXin An
- Department of Allergy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical UniversityHarbin 150001, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Xia Li
- Department of Bioinformatic, The Harbin Medical UniversityHarbin 150086, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Ping Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical UniversityHarbin 150001, Heilongjiang Province, China
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Primary vitreoretinal lymphoma: an update on pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2016; 27:177-84. [PMID: 26859131 DOI: 10.1097/icu.0000000000000255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Primary vitreoretinal lymphoma (PVRL) is a subset of primary central nervous system lymphoma in which disease primarily affects the uvea, retina, vitreous and optic nerve. This review discusses recent efforts to clarify the disease's pathogenesis, its diagnosis and its optimal treatment. RECENT FINDINGS PVRL typically masquerades as a chronic intermediate uveitis in older individuals. Unambiguous diagnosis requires cytologic demonstration of malignant cells in a vitreous or chorioretinal specimen. However, cytokine analysis demonstrating increased interleukin 10 (IL 10) levels or increased IL-10:IL-6 ratio in the aqueous or vitreous, flow cytometry demonstrating a monoclonal cell population, molecular analysis demonstrating gene rearrangements or translocations or combinations of several techniques can be used effectively to aid in diagnosis. Treatment is aimed at eradication of disease within the eyes and prevention of central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma. Whether this should be done with local therapy alone (globe irradiation or intravitreal chemotherapy such as methotrexate or rituximab), or with systemic chemotherapy remains a source of debate. Even with high-dose systemic chemotherapy, CNS disease is prone to recurrence and has a poor prognosis. SUMMARY New techniques and innovative treatment strategies may streamline time to definitive diagnosis and may lead to prolonged survival with better vision in patients with PVRL.
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Cimino L, Coassin M, Chan CC, Marchi S, Belpoliti M, Fanti A, Iovieno A, Fontana L. Vitreoretinal lymphomas misdiagnosed as uveitis: Lessons learned from a case series. Indian J Ophthalmol 2016; 64:369-75. [PMID: 27380976 PMCID: PMC4966374 DOI: 10.4103/0301-4738.185600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To present challenging cases of vitreoretinal lymphoma (VRL) that was misdiagnosed as uveitis because of the apparent intraocular inflammation. At the light of the new classification of intraocular lymphomas, we detail the characteristics that masqueraded the tumors and the clinical aspects that guided us to the correct diagnosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS We retrospectively reviewed the patients referred to our uveitis service between January 2006 and December 2014. RESULTS Seven patients referred with a presumptive diagnosis of idiopathic uveitis received a final diagnosis of VRL. The median time between the onset of symptoms and definitive diagnosis was 25 months for these complex cases. The median time from presentation at our clinic to final diagnosis was 1 month. The described clinical features including dense vitreous cells and subretinal infiltrates were characteristic and tend to be present in all these chronically ill patients. Vitreous samples were collected, and all demonstrated the pathognomonic tumor cells, the specific immunoglobulin heavy chain gene rearrangements, and an interleukin (IL)-10 to IL-6 ratio >1. CONCLUSION VRLs are severe diseases with a poor prognosis that may be misdiagnosed as idiopathic inflammatory conditions of the eye. Treatment with steroids may occult the tumors and delay the correct diagnosis. Appropriate evaluation may prompt to a timely vitreous sampling and therefore to a faster diagnosis in these peculiar cases where the correct diagnosis was delayed by several months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Cimino
- Department of Ophthalmology, Uveitis Service, Santa Maria Nuova Hospital-IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Marco Coassin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Santa Maria Nuova Hospital-IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Chi-Chao Chan
- Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sylvia Marchi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Uveitis Service, Santa Maria Nuova Hospital-IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Matteo Belpoliti
- Department of Ophthalmology, Santa Maria Nuova Hospital-IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Andrea Fanti
- Department of Ophthalmology, Santa Maria Nuova Hospital-IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Alfonso Iovieno
- Department of Ophthalmology, Santa Maria Nuova Hospital-IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Luigi Fontana
- Department of Ophthalmology, Santa Maria Nuova Hospital-IRCCS, Reggio Emilia, Italy
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Laíns I, Bartosch C, Mondim V, Healy B, Kim IK, Husain D, Miller JW. Second Primary Neoplasms in Patients With Uveal Melanoma: A SEER Database Analysis. Am J Ophthalmol 2016; 165:54-64. [PMID: 26940164 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajo.2016.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the risk of second primary neoplasms (SPNs) in subjects previously diagnosed with uveal melanoma (UM), including an analysis on whether radiotherapy is a risk factor to develop these SPNs. DESIGN Retrospective cohort study. METHODS Using the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) 9 database, we identified patients diagnosed with UM as their first malignancy between 1973 and 2011 (n = 3976). We obtained standardized incidence ratios (SIR) and excess absolute risks of SPNs on patients with UM compared to a reference population. Multivariate Cox regression models were used to evaluate the effect of radiotherapy in SPN risk. RESULTS Sixteen percent (n = 641) of the patients developed SPNs during a median follow-up of 83 months (range, 1-463 months). This represented an 11% excess risk compared to the reference population, mainly owing to a significantly increased risk of skin melanomas (SIR = 2.93, 95% CI: 2.23-3.78) and kidney tumors (SIR = 1.91, 95% CI: 1.27-2.76), primarily in those diagnosed between 30 and 59 years of age. The occurrence of second UM was also increased (SIR = 16.90, 95% CI: 9.00-28.90), which likely includes recurrences misclassified as a second cancer. Radiotherapy was performed in 39% (n = 1538) of the patients. Multivariate analysis revealed that this treatment was not an independent risk factor for SPNs (hazard ratio = 1.06, 95% CI: 0.88-1.26, P = .54). CONCLUSIONS Patients with UM presented an 11% higher risk of SPNs compared to the reference population. Radiotherapy does not seem to be a risk factor. SPNs should be considered in the surveillance of UM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Laíns
- Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Carla Bartosch
- Department of Pathology, Portuguese Oncology Institute, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Mondim
- Department of Anesthesiology, Centro Hospitalar de Lisboa Central, EPE, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Brian Healy
- Biostatistics Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ivana K Kim
- Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Deeba Husain
- Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.
| | - Joan W Miller
- Department of Ophthalmology, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
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Nielsen M, Dogrusöz M, Bleeker J, Kroes W, van Asperen C, Marinkovic M, Luyten G, Jager M. The genetic basis of uveal melanoma. J Fr Ophtalmol 2015; 38:516-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfo.2015.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Double-hit vitreoretinal lymphoma. Can J Ophthalmol 2014; 49:e73-6. [PMID: 24862789 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjo.2014.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Shao Q, Zhao X, Yao L. Matrine inhibits the growth of retinoblastoma cells (SO-Rb50) by decreasing proliferation and inducing apoptosis in a mitochondrial pathway. Mol Biol Rep 2014; 41:3475-80. [PMID: 24515384 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-014-3209-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Matrine, one of the main active components of extracts from the dry roots of Sophora flavescens, has potent anti-tumor activity in vitro and in vivo. Here, we investigated the apoptosis in matrine-treated retinoblastoma cells. The results showed that matrine could inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Further investigation revealed that a disruption of mitochondrial transmembrane potential and an up-regulation of reactive oxygen species in matrine-treated cells. By western blot analysis, we found that the up-regulation of cleaved Apaf-1, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, cleaved caspase-7, Bax/Bcl-2, varying with different concentration of matrine. These protein interactions may play a pivotal role in the regulation of apoptosis. Taken together, these results overall indicate that matrine could be used as an effective anti-tumor agent in therapy of retinoblastoma targets the caspase-dependent signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingliang Shao
- Department of Pediatrics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, 148 Baojian Street, Nangang District, Harbin, 150081, Heilongjiang, China
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