1
|
AlSahow A. Moderate stepwise restriction of potassium intake to reduce risk of hyperkalemia in chronic kidney disease: A literature review. World J Nephrol 2023; 12:73-81. [PMID: 37766841 PMCID: PMC10520754 DOI: 10.5527/wjn.v12.i4.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023] Open
Abstract
A potassium-rich diet has several cardiovascular and renal health benefits; however, it is not recommended for patients with advanced chronic kidney disease or end-stage kidney disease because of the risk of life-threatening hyperkalemia. To assess the strength of evidence supporting potassium intake restriction in chronic kidney disease, the medical literature was searched looking for the current recommended approach and for evidence in support for such an approach. There is a lack of strong evidence supporting intense restriction of dietary potassium intake. There are several ways to reduce potassium intake without depriving the patient from fruits and vegetables, such as identifying hidden sources of potassium (processed food and preservatives) and soaking or boiling food to remove potassium. An individualized and gradual reduction of dietary potassium intake in people at risk of hyperkalemia is recommended. The current potassium dietary advice in chronic kidney disease needs to be reevaluated, individualized, and gradually introduced.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali AlSahow
- Department of Nephrology, Jahra Hospital, Jahra 00004, Kuwait
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shaw V, Anderson C, Desloovere A, Greenbaum LA, Haffner D, Nelms CL, Paglialonga F, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Stabouli S, Tuokkola J, Vande Walle J, Warady BA, Shroff R. Nutritional management of the infant with chronic kidney disease stages 2-5 and on dialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 2023; 38:87-103. [PMID: 35378603 PMCID: PMC9747855 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-022-05529-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The nutritional management of children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is of prime importance in meeting the challenge of maintaining normal growth and development in this population. The objective of this review is to integrate the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce clinical practice recommendations for children with CKD stages 2-5 and on dialysis, as they relate to the infant from full term birth up to 1 year of age, for healthcare professionals, including dietitians, physicians, and nurses. It addresses nutritional assessment, energy and protein requirements, delivery of the nutritional prescription, and necessary dietary modifications in the case of abnormal serum levels of calcium, phosphate, and potassium. We focus on the particular nutritional needs of infants with CKD for whom dietary recommendations for energy and protein, based on body weight, are higher compared with children over 1 year of age in order to support both linear and brain growth, which are normally maximal in the first 6 months of life. Attention to nutrition during infancy is important given that growth is predominantly nutrition dependent in the infantile phase and the growth of infants is acutely impaired by disruption to their nutritional intake, particularly during the first 6 months. Inadequate nutritional intake can result in the failure to achieve full adult height potential and an increased risk for abnormal neurodevelopment. We strongly suggest that physicians work closely with pediatric renal dietitians to ensure that the infant with CKD receives the best possible nutritional management to optimize their growth and development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Shaw
- University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford Street, London, WC1N 1EH, UK.
| | - Caroline Anderson
- University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK
| | | | | | - Dieter Haffner
- Children's Hospital, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | | | - Fabio Paglialonga
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - José Renken-Terhaerdt
- Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Stella Stabouli
- 1st Department of Pediatrics, Aristotle University Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Jetta Tuokkola
- Children's Hospital and Clinical Nutrition Unit, Internal Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | | | - Rukshana Shroff
- University College London Great Ormond Street Hospital Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford Street, London, WC1N 1EH, UK
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liu B, Wang T, Chen Z. Sodium zirconium cyclosilicate pretreatment for formula in vitro reduces potassium intake in infants with chronic kidney disease. Chin Med J (Engl) 2022; 135:3007-3009. [PMID: 36728285 PMCID: PMC10106151 DOI: 10.1097/cm9.0000000000002461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Boxuan Liu
- Department of Internal Medicine, Beijing Fu Xing Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Teng Wang
- CAIQTEST (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100176, China
| | - Zhi Chen
- Department of Nephrology, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing 100045, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hara K. Modification of milk resulting in low potassium and minimal electrolyte changes with minimal changes in taste. J DAIRY RES 2022; 89:1-5. [PMID: 35485799 DOI: 10.1017/s0022029922000358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this research communication was to produce low potassium milk in which other electrolyte changes and changes in taste were minimized. To reduce potassium concentrations, several studies have reported batch methods of directly mixing milk or formula with sodium polystyrene sulfonate, which can exchange cations such as potassium for sodium. However, they also reported increases in sodium content, decreases in calcium and magnesium content, and changes in taste, because sodium polystyrene sulfonate exchanged other substances such as calcium and magnesium for sodium. In the present study, a method of dialyzing whole cow's milk using both sodium polystyrene sulfonate and a small amount of water through cellophane membranes was developed. A batch method for comparison was also performed. Each milk sample was evaluated biochemically and analyzed for taste and aroma in a sensory analysis. We showed that the potassium concentration in the dialyzed milk was reduced to 38% of that in unreacted milk. It was also shown that changes in sodium (increased) as well as calcium and magnesium (decreased) in the dialyzed milk were less than half of those in the batch method milk. Sensory analysis showed that minimal changes occurred in the taste of the dialyzed milk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Hara
- Yokkaichi Michishirube Dialysis Clinic, Bell-Saya 1F; 14-27, Htta 1-chome, Yokkaichi, Mie 510-0001, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Desloovere A, Renken-Terhaerdt J, Tuokkola J, Shaw V, Greenbaum LA, Haffner D, Anderson C, Nelms CL, Oosterveld MJS, Paglialonga F, Polderman N, Qizalbash L, Warady BA, Shroff R, Vande Walle J. The dietary management of potassium in children with CKD stages 2-5 and on dialysis-clinical practice recommendations from the Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce. Pediatr Nephrol 2021; 36:1331-1346. [PMID: 33730284 PMCID: PMC8084813 DOI: 10.1007/s00467-021-04923-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Dyskalemias are often seen in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). While hyperkalemia is common, with an increasing prevalence as glomerular filtration rate declines, hypokalemia may also occur, particularly in children with renal tubular disorders and those on intensive dialysis regimens. Dietary assessment and adjustment of potassium intake is critically important in children with CKD as hyperkalemia can be life-threatening. Manipulation of dietary potassium can be challenging as it may affect the intake of other nutrients and reduce palatability. The Pediatric Renal Nutrition Taskforce (PRNT), an international team of pediatric renal dietitians and pediatric nephrologists, has developed clinical practice recommendations (CPRs) for the dietary management of potassium in children with CKD stages 2-5 and on dialysis (CKD2-5D). We describe the assessment of dietary potassium intake, requirements for potassium in healthy children, and the dietary management of hypo- and hyperkalemia in children with CKD2-5D. Common potassium containing foods are described and approaches to adjusting potassium intake that can be incorporated into everyday practice discussed. Given the poor quality of evidence available, a Delphi survey was conducted to seek consensus from international experts. Statements with a low grade or those that are opinion-based must be carefully considered and adapted to individual patient needs, based on the clinical judgment of the treating physician and dietitian. These CPRs will be regularly audited and updated by the PRNT.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - José Renken-Terhaerdt
- Wilhelmina Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jetta Tuokkola
- Children's Hospital and Clinical Nutrition Unit, Internal Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Vanessa Shaw
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK.
- University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK.
| | - Larry A Greenbaum
- Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Dieter Haffner
- Children's Hospital, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Caroline Anderson
- University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, Southampton, UK
| | | | - Michiel J S Oosterveld
- Emma Children's Hospital, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fabio Paglialonga
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Rukshana Shroff
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Batista RAB, Japur CC, Prestes IV, Fortunato Silva J, Cavanha M, das Graças Pena G. Potassium reduction in food by preparation technique for the dietetic management of patients with chronic kidney disease: a review. J Hum Nutr Diet 2021; 34:736-746. [PMID: 33497513 DOI: 10.1111/jhn.12846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic kidney disease patients often use food preparation techniques to reduce potassium intake. However, the most effective techniques have not yet been determined for all food groups. The present study aimed to analyse all of the available information on potassium reduction in the food and identify the best preparation techniques by comparing the trend of change in potassium level. METHODS Nine databases were searched from 1976 to May 2020, according to the PRISMA Statement. We included all articles reporting the amount of potassium before and after the application of food preparation techniques. Data were analysed using the Wilcoxon test and statistical simulation. RESULTS A wide variety of food and culinary processes was observed in the 65 included articles. Cooking in water, pressure cooking and cooking in a microwave oven reduced potassium levels in all food groups, particularly in cereals and derivatives, fruits and derivatives, meats and derivatives, legumes, and leafy and cruciferous vegetables. Soaking food significantly reduced the potassium content in tubers and roots and leafy and cruciferous vegetables. Steam cooking and dry heating cooking also reduced potassium, although at a level lower than the other techniques. CONCLUSIONS The present review shows that, in general, all food preparation techniques can reduce the potassium content, although cooking in water and soaking promotes a greater reduction; however, more studies with standardised techniques and complete data are necessary.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Aparecida Borges Batista
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Medical School, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - C Cremonezi Japur
- Division of Nutrition and Metabolism, Department of Health Sciences, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | | | - J Fortunato Silva
- Nutrition Course, Medical School, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - M Cavanha
- Nutrition Course, Medical School, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| | - G das Graças Pena
- Graduate Program in Health Sciences, Medical School, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Characterization and Expression Analysis of the Ca 2+/Cation Antiporter Gene Family in Tomatoes. PLANTS 2019; 9:plants9010025. [PMID: 31878106 PMCID: PMC7020160 DOI: 10.3390/plants9010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The Ca2+/cation antiporter (CaCA) superfamily plays an important role in the regulation of the essential element Ca2+ and cation concentrations. Characterization and expression analyses of CaCA superfamily genes were performed in the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) as a representative of dicotyledonous plants and fruit crops. Sixteen CaCA candidate genes were found and identified as tomato CaCA, SlCaCA, by a domain search. In a phylogenetic analysis of the SlCaCA superfamily, the 16 genes were classified into SlCAX, SlNCL, SlCCX, and SlMHX families. Among them, Solyc12g011070, belonging to the SlCAX family, had four splice variants, three of which were predicted to be nonfunctional because of a lack of important motifs. EF-hand domains were only found in SlNCL, in addition to consensus Na_Ca_ex domains, and the region containing EF-hand domains was characteristically long in some members of SlNCL. Furthermore, four genes of the SlCCX family were found to be intronless. As for intracellular localization, one SlCCX member was predicted to be localized to the plasma membrane, while other SlCCXs, SlCAXs, and SlMHXs were predicted to be localized to the vacuolar membrane. The expression patterns of SlCaCAs in various organs, including during several developmental stages of fruit, were classified into four groups. Genes involved in each of the SlCAX, SlNCL, and SlCCX gene families were categorized into three or four groups according to expression patterns, suggesting role sharing within each family. The main member in each subfamily and the members with characteristic fruit expression patterns included genes whose expression was regulated by sugar or auxin and that were highly expressed in a line having metabolite-rich fruit.
Collapse
|
8
|
De Nicola L, Di Lullo L, Paoletti E, Cupisti A, Bianchi S. Chronic hyperkalemia in non-dialysis CKD: controversial issues in nephrology practice. J Nephrol 2018; 31:653-664. [PMID: 29882199 PMCID: PMC6182350 DOI: 10.1007/s40620-018-0502-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chronic hyperkalemia is a major complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD) that occurs frequently, heralds poor prognosis, and necessitates careful management by the nephrologist. Current strategies aimed at prevention and treatment of hyperkalemia are still suboptimal, as evidenced by the relatively high prevalence of hyperkalemia in patients under stable nephrology care, and even in the ideal setting of randomized trials where best treatment and monitoring are mandatory. The aim of this review was to identify and discuss a range of unresolved issues related to the management of chronic hyperkalemia in non-dialysis CKD. The following topics of clinical interest were addressed: diagnosis, relationship with main comorbidities of CKD, therapy with inhibitors of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, efficacy of current dietary and pharmacological treatment, and the potential role of the new generation of potassium binders. Opinion-based answers are provided for each of these controversial issues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luca De Nicola
- Division of Nephrology, University of Campania, Piazza L. Miraglia, 1, 80138, Naples, Italy.
| | - Luca Di Lullo
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Parodi-Delfino Hospital, Colleferro, Rome, Italy
| | - Ernesto Paoletti
- Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplantation, University of Genoa and Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Adamasco Cupisti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefano Bianchi
- Nephrology Unit, Azienda USL Toscana Nord Ovest, Leghorn, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cupisti A, Kovesdy CP, D'Alessandro C, Kalantar-Zadeh K. Dietary Approach to Recurrent or Chronic Hyperkalaemia in Patients with Decreased Kidney Function. Nutrients 2018; 10:nu10030261. [PMID: 29495340 PMCID: PMC5872679 DOI: 10.3390/nu10030261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2018] [Revised: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Whereas the adequate intake of potassium is relatively high in healthy adults, i.e., 4.7 g per day, a dietary potassium restriction of usually less than 3 g per day is recommended in the management of patients with reduced kidney function, especially those who tend to develop hyperkalaemia including patients who are treated with angiotensin pathway modulators. Most potassium-rich foods are considered heart-healthy nutrients with high fibre, high anti-oxidant vitamins and high alkali content such as fresh fruits and vegetables; hence, the main challenge of dietary potassium management is to maintain high fibre intake and a low net fixed-acid load, because constipation and metabolic acidosis are per se major risk factors for hyperkalaemia. To achieve a careful reduction of dietary potassium load without a decrease in alkali or fibre intake, we recommend the implementation of certain pragmatic dietary interventions as follows: Improving knowledge and education about the type of foods with excess potassium (per serving or per unit of weight); identifying foods that are needed for healthy nutrition in renal patients; classification of foods based on their potassium content normalized per unit of dietary fibre; education about the use of cooking procedures (such as boiling) in order to achieve effective potassium reduction before eating; and attention to hidden sources of potassium, in particular additives in preserved foods and low-sodium salt substitutes. The present paper aims to review dietary potassium handling and gives information about practical approaches to limit potassium load in chronic kidney disease patients at risk of hyperkalaemia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adamasco Cupisti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Csaba P Kovesdy
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA.
| | - Claudia D'Alessandro
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Kamyar Kalantar-Zadeh
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, University of California Irvine, School of Medicine, Orange, CA 92697, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Le Palma K, Pavlick ER, Copelovitch L. Pretreatment of enteral nutrition with sodium polystyrene sulfonate: effective, but beware the high prevalence of electrolyte derangements in clinical practice. Clin Kidney J 2017; 11:166-171. [PMID: 29644055 PMCID: PMC5887418 DOI: 10.1093/ckj/sfx138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Current treatment options for chronic hyperkalemia in children with chronic kidney disease include dietary restrictions or enteral sodium polystyrene sulfonate (SPS); however, dietary restrictions may compromise adequate nutrition and enteral SPS may be limited by palatability, adverse effects and feeding tube obstruction. A potentially safer alternative is to pretreat enteral nutrition (EN) with SPS prior to consumption. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of pretreating EN with SPS in pediatric patients with hyperkalemia. Methods We performed a retrospective cohort study between September 2012 and May 2016 at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. In all, 14 patients (age range 0.5–53.2 months) who received 19 courses of SPS pretreatment of EN were evaluated. Serum electrolytes were evaluated at baseline and within 1 week of initiating therapy. The primary endpoint was mean change in potassium at 7 days. Secondary endpoints included the mean change in serum sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphorous and magnesium, as well as the percentage of patients who developed electrolyte abnormalities within the first week of treatment. Results Serum potassium levels decreased from 6.0 to 4.4 mmol/L (P < 0.001) and serum sodium levels increased from 135.8 to 141.3 mmol/L (P = 0.008) 1 week after initiating SPS pretreatment. No significant differences in mean serum calcium or magnesium levels were noted. Nevertheless, more than half of the courses resulted in at least one electrolyte abnormality, with hypokalemia (31.6%), hypernatremia (26.3%) and hypocalcemia (21.1%) occurring most frequently. Conclusions Pretreatment of EN with SPS is an effective method for treating chronic hyperkalemia in pediatric patients; however, close monitoring of electrolytes is warranted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Krisha Le Palma
- Department of Pharmacy, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Elisha Rampolla Pavlick
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lawrence Copelovitch
- Division of Nephrology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|