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Armario A. The forced swim test: Historical, conceptual and methodological considerations and its relationship with individual behavioral traits. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 128:74-86. [PMID: 34118295 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The forced swim test (FST), developed by Porsolt and collaborators in 1977 to evaluate antidepressant (AD) treatments in rodents, has become extensively used for this purpose and to evaluate depression-like states. Despite its popularity, studies have raised important concerns regarding its theoretical and predictive validity. In my view and that of others, the FST mainly evaluates coping strategies in an inescapable situation. Although it is reasonable to assume that ADs act favoring active coping whereas negative affective states would favor passive coping, this does not mean that only ADs should enhance active coping or that a depression state has developed, respectively. Given its simplicity, proper interpretation of the FST behavior is critically dependent on how FST behavior relates to other behavioral traits. Unfortunately, this issue has been poorly discussed previously. Then, the present review, using a historical perspective, offers information needed to better understand the meaning and limitations of the FST, discusses critical methodological aspects and analyzes the relationship of FST behavior with classical behavioral traits in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Armario
- Institut de Neurociències, Animal Physiology Unit (Department of Cellular Biology, Physiology and Immunology), Faculty of Biosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, CIBERSAM, Campus Bellaterra, Cerdanyola del Vallès, 08193, Barcelona, Spain.
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2
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Santos CE, Benini R, Crestani CC. Spontaneous recovery, time course, and circadian influence on habituation of the cardiovascular responses to repeated restraint stress in rats. Pflugers Arch 2020; 472:1495-1506. [PMID: 32827263 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-020-02451-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the spontaneous recovery, time course, and the influence of the time of day on the habituation of the cardiovascular responses with repeated exposure to restraint stress in male rats. Habituation of the corticosterone response to repeated restraint stress was also evaluated. The circulating corticosterone response decreased during both the stress and recovery periods of the tenth session of restraint. Habituation of the cardiovascular responses was identified as a faster return to baseline values of the heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) during the recovery period of the tenth session of restraint. Habituation of the HR and BP was still observed after 10 days of discontinuation of the repeated exposure to restraint stress. However, spontaneous recovery of habituated responses was observed 20 days after the final restraint stress session. Time course analysis revealed decreased HR response during the recovery period of the third restraint session, without further reduction on the fifth, seventh, and tenth sessions. Decreased BP response was identified on the third and fifth sessions, whereas reduced tail skin temperature response was observed only on the fifth and seventh sessions. Regarding the time of day, habituation of the tachycardiac response was identified at the tenth session when repeated restraint stress was performed in the morning and night periods, but not in the afternoon. These findings provided evidence of spontaneous recovery of the habituation of cardiovascular responses to repeated restraint stress. Moreover, cardiovascular habituation was dependent on the number of trials and time of day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos E Santos
- Department of Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rodovia Araraquara KM 01 (Campus Universitário), Araraquara, SP, 14800-903, Brazil.,Joint UFSCar-UNESP Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Benini
- Department of Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rodovia Araraquara KM 01 (Campus Universitário), Araraquara, SP, 14800-903, Brazil.,Joint UFSCar-UNESP Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos C Crestani
- Department of Drugs and Pharmaceutics, Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Rodovia Araraquara KM 01 (Campus Universitário), Araraquara, SP, 14800-903, Brazil. .,Joint UFSCar-UNESP Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences, São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
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Nogueira PAS, Pereira MP, Soares JJG, de Assis Silva Gomes J, Ribeiro DL, Razolli DS, Velloso LA, Neto MB, Zanon RG. Swimming reduces fatty acids-associated hypothalamic damage in mice. J Chem Neuroanat 2019; 103:101713. [PMID: 31726089 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2019.101713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The arcuate and the paraventricular and lateral hypothalamic nuclei, related to hunger and satiety control, are generally compromised by excess fatty acids. In this situation, fatty acids cause inflammation via TLR4 (toll like receptor 4) and the nuclei become less responsive to the hormones leptin and insulin, contributing to the development of obesity. In this work, these nuclei were analyzed in animals fed with high-fat diet and submitted to swimming without and with load for two months. For this, frontal sections of the hypothalamus were immunolabelled with GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein), synaptophysin, IL-6 (interleukin 6) and TLR4. Also, proteins extracted from the hypothalamus were analyzed using Western blotting (GFAP and synaptophysin), fluorometric analysis for caspases 3 and 7, and CBA (cytometric bead array) for Th1, Th2, and Th17 profiles. The high-fat diet significantly caused overweight and, in the hypothalamus, decreased synapses and increased astrocytic reactivity. The swimming with load, especially 80 % of the maximum load, reduced those consequences. The high-fat diet increased TLR4 in the arcuate nucleus and the swimming exercise with 80 % of the maximum load showed a tendency of reducing this expression. Swimming did not significantly influence the inflammatory or anti-inflammatory cytokines in the hypothalamus or in plasma. The high-fat diet in sedentary animals increased the expression of caspases 3 and 7 and swimming practice reduced this increment to levels compatible with animals fed on a normal diet. The set of results conclude that the impact of swimming on the damage caused in the hypothalamus by a high-fat diet is positive. The different aspects analyzed in here point to better cellular viability and conservation of the synapses in the hypothalamic nuclei of overweight animals that practiced swimming with a load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Augusto Silva Nogueira
- Institute of Biomedical Science, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil; Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil; Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Miriam Pimenta Pereira
- Institute of Biomedical Science, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Juliana de Assis Silva Gomes
- Laboratory of Cellular Interactions Biology, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniele Lisboa Ribeiro
- Institute of Biomedical Science, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniela Soares Razolli
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil; Laboratory of Multidisciplinary Research, São Francisco University, Bragança Paulista, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Licio Augusto Velloso
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Morun Bernardino Neto
- Department of Basic and Environmental Sciences, University of São Paulo, Lorena, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renata Graciele Zanon
- Institute of Biomedical Science, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Rabasa C, Askevik K, Schéle E, Hu M, Vogel H, Dickson SL. Divergent Metabolic Effects of Acute Versus Chronic Repeated Forced Swim Stress in the Rat. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2019; 27:427-433. [PMID: 30703287 PMCID: PMC6590371 DOI: 10.1002/oby.22390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study sought to examine divergence regarding the impact of acute versus chronic repeated stress on energy balance. METHODS Rats were exposed to either chronic repeated forced swim (FS) stress for 7 days or an acute stress (a single FS). Body weight and food intake were measured daily. Metabolic parameters explored included brown adipose tissue (BAT) weight and activity. RESULTS Chronic repeated FS stress decreased body weight and caloric efficiency. It also increased the relative weight of BAT. The same stressor delivered only once did not alter adrenal or BAT weight, but it did increase the metabolic activity of BAT. In stress-naive rats, acute FS stress induced an anorexigenic response during the first day after the stressor that caused a reduction in body weight (that persisted for 4 days). By contrast, the chronic FS rats did not show an anorexigenic response after the final stressor, and there was no change in body weight during the following 4 days. CONCLUSIONS Rats exposed to chronic repeated FS stress adapt to the stressor over time; they become less sensitive to its anorexigenic effects and its metabolic effects in BAT, adaptations that ultimately reduce sensitivity to the weight-lowering effects of an acute stressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Rabasa
- Department of Physiology/EndocrineInstitute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Kaisa Askevik
- Department of Physiology/EndocrineInstitute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Erik Schéle
- Department of Physiology/EndocrineInstitute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Min Hu
- Department of Physiology/EndocrineInstitute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
- Department of Traditional Chinese MedicineThe First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Heike Vogel
- Department of Physiology/EndocrineInstitute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
- Department of Experimental DiabetologyGerman Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam‐RehbrueckeNuthetalGermany
| | - Suzanne L. Dickson
- Department of Physiology/EndocrineInstitute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
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Bangalore H, Checchia PA, Ocampo EC, Heinle JS, Minard CG, Shekerdemian LS. Cortisol Response in Children After Second Cardiopulmonary Bypass. Pediatr Cardiol 2019; 40:47-52. [PMID: 30167750 DOI: 10.1007/s00246-018-1959-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A surge in cortisol levels is seen after surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). Based on evidence of attenuation of the cortisol response to repeated stress in other settings, we hypothesized that the magnitude of cortisol increase in children after a second exposure to CPB would be reduced. Serial cortisol levels were measured at three time points after each CPB: immediately (day 0), on the first morning (day 1), and second morning (day 2). Forty-six children underwent two surgeries with CPB during the study period. The mean age (standard deviation) at first and second surgery was 3.5 (6.3) months and 10.4 (9.9) months, respectively. Cortisol levels at the first surgery were 109 (105) µg/dl, 29 (62) µg/dl, and 17 (12) µg/dl on day 0, 1, and 2, respectively; similarly at second surgery, it was 61 (57) µg/dl on day 0 to 20 (16) µg/dl and 11 (10) µg/dl on day 1 and 2, respectively. After log-transformation and adjusting for time interval between surgeries, cortisol levels at the second surgery were lower by 42% on day 0 (p = 0.02), and 46% lower on day 2 (p = 0.02). A second exposure to CPB in children with congenital heart disease is associated with an attenuated cortisol release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harish Bangalore
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Critical Care, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, 6621 Fannin St. Suite W6006, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Paul A Checchia
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Critical Care, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, 6621 Fannin St. Suite W6006, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Elena C Ocampo
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Cardiology, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Heinle
- Division of Congenital Heart Surgery, Michael E. DeBakey Department of Surgery, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Charles G Minard
- Dan L. Duncan Institute for Clinical and Translational Research, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Lara S Shekerdemian
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Critical Care, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, 6621 Fannin St. Suite W6006, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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Psychostimulants and forced swim stress interaction: how activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and stress-induced hyperglycemia are affected. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:2859-2869. [PMID: 28710520 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4675-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE We recently reported that simultaneous exposure to amphetamine and various stressors resulted in reduced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and glycemic responses to the stressors. Since this is a new and relevant phenomenon, we wanted to further explore this interaction. OBJECTIVES This study aims (i) to characterize the effect of various doses of amphetamine on the physiological response to a predominantly emotional stressor (forced swim) when the drug was given immediately before stress; (ii) to study if an interaction appears when the drug was given 30 min or 7 days before swim; and (iii) to know whether cocaine causes similar effects when given just before stress. Adult male rats were used and plasma levels of ACTH, corticosterone, and glucose were the outcomes. RESULTS Amphetamine caused a dose-dependent activation of the HPA axis, but all doses reduced HPA and glycemic responses to swim when given just before the stressor. Importantly, during the post-swim period, the stressor potently inhibited the ACTH response to amphetamine, demonstrating mutual inhibition between the two stimuli. The highest dose of amphetamine also reduced the response to swim when given 30 min before stress, whereas it caused HPA sensitization when given 7 days before. Cocaine also reduced stress-induced HPA activation when given just before swim. CONCLUSIONS The present results demonstrate a negative synergy between psychostimulants (amphetamine and cocaine) and stress regarding HPA and glucose responses when rats were exposed simultaneously to both stimuli. The inhibitory effect of amphetamine is also observed when given shortly before stress, but not some days before.
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Abstract
In this review, nonassociative learning is advanced as an organizing principle to draw together findings from both sympathetic-adrenal medullary and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis responses to chronic intermittent exposure to a variety of stressors. Studies of habituation, facilitation and sensitization of stress effector systems are reviewed and linked to an animal's prior experience with a given stressor, the intensity of the stressor and the appraisal by the animal of its ability to mobilize physiological systems to adapt to the stressor. Brain pathways that regulate physiological and behavioral responses to stress are discussed, especially in light of their regulation of nonassociative processes in chronic intermittent stress. These findings may have special relevance to various psychiatric diseases, including depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard McCarty
- a Department of Psychology , Vanderbilt University , Nashville , TN , USA
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Evidence against a critical role of CB1 receptors in adaptation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and other consequences of daily repeated stress. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 25:1248-59. [PMID: 26092203 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
There is evidence that endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs) play a role in the control of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, although they appear to have dual, stimulatory and inhibitory, effects. Recent data in rats suggest that eCBs, acting through CB1 receptors (CB1R), may be involved in adaptation of the HPA axis to daily repeated stress. In the present study we analyze this issue in male mice and rats. Using a knock-out mice for the CB1 receptor (CB1-/-) we showed that mutant mice presented similar adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) response to the first IMO as wild-type mice. Daily repeated exposure to 1h of immobilization reduced the ACTH response to the stressor, regardless of the genotype, demonstrating that adaptation occurred to the same extent in absence of CB1R. Prototypical changes observed after repeated stress such as enhanced corticotropin releasing factor (CRH) gene expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, impaired body weight gain and reduced thymus weight were similarly observed in both genotypes. The lack of effect of CB1R in the expression of HPA adaptation to another similar stressor (restraint) was confirmed in wild-type CD1 mice by the lack of effect of the CB1R antagonist AM251 just before the last exposure to stress. Finally, the latter drug did not blunt the HPA, glucose and behavioral adaptation to daily repeated forced swim in rats. Thus, the present results indicate that CB1R is not critical for overall effects of daily repeated stress or proper adaptation of the HPA axis in mice and rats.
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Belda X, Fuentes S, Daviu N, Nadal R, Armario A. Stress-induced sensitization: the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and beyond. Stress 2015; 18:269-79. [PMID: 26300109 DOI: 10.3109/10253890.2015.1067678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to certain acute and chronic stressors results in an immediate behavioral and physiological response to the situation followed by a period of days when cross-sensitization to further novel stressors is observed. Cross-sensitization affects to different behavioral and physiological systems, more particularly to the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. It appears that the nature of the initial (triggering) stressor plays a major role, HPA cross-sensitization being more widely observed with systemic or high-intensity emotional stressors. Less important appears to be the nature of the novel (challenging) stressor, although HPA cross-sensitization is better observed with short duration (5-15 min) challenging stressors. In some studies with acute immune stressors, HPA sensitization appears to develop over time (incubation), but most results indicate a strong initial sensitization that progressively declines over the days. Sensitization can affect other physiological system (i.e. plasma catecholamines, brain monoamines), but it is not a general phenomenon. When studied concurrently, behavioral sensitization appears to persist longer than that of the HPA axis, a finding of interest regarding long-term consequences of traumatic stress. In many cases, behavioral and physiological consequences of prior stress can only be observed following imposition of a new stressor, suggesting long-term latent effects of the initial exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Belda
- a Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- b Unitat de Fisiologia Animal (Facultat de Biociències), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- c Red de Trastornos Adictivos (RTA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain , and
| | - Silvia Fuentes
- a Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- c Red de Trastornos Adictivos (RTA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain , and
- d Unitat de Psicobiologia (Facultat de Psicologia), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Nuria Daviu
- a Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- b Unitat de Fisiologia Animal (Facultat de Biociències), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- c Red de Trastornos Adictivos (RTA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain , and
| | - Roser Nadal
- a Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- c Red de Trastornos Adictivos (RTA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain , and
- d Unitat de Psicobiologia (Facultat de Psicologia), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Antonio Armario
- a Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- b Unitat de Fisiologia Animal (Facultat de Biociències), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain
- c Red de Trastornos Adictivos (RTA), Instituto de Salud Carlos III , Bellaterra , Barcelona , Spain , and
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Fuentes S, Carrasco J, Armario A, Nadal R. Behavioral and neuroendocrine consequences of juvenile stress combined with adult immobilization in male rats. Horm Behav 2014; 66:475-86. [PMID: 25036868 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 07/06/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to stress during childhood and adolescence increases vulnerability to developing several psychopathologies in adulthood and alters the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the prototypical stress system. Rodent models of juvenile stress appear to support this hypothesis because juvenile stress can result in reduced activity/exploration and enhanced anxiety, although results are not always consistent. Moreover, an in-depth characterization of changes in the HPA axis is lacking. In the present study, the long-lasting effects of juvenile stress on adult behavior and HPA function were evaluated in male rats. The juvenile stress consisted of a combination of stressors (cat odor, forced swim and footshock) during postnatal days 23-28. Juvenile stress reduced the maximum amplitude of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels (reduced peak at lights off), without affecting the circadian corticosterone rhythm, but other aspects of the HPA function (negative glucocorticoid feedback, responsiveness to further stressors and brain gene expression of corticotrophin-releasing hormone and corticosteroid receptors) remained unaltered. The behavioral effects of juvenile stress itself at adulthood were modest (decreased activity in the circular corridor) with no evidence of enhanced anxiety. Imposition of an acute severe stressor (immobilization on boards, IMO) did not increase anxiety in control animals, as evaluated one week later in the elevated-plus maze (EPM), but it potentiated the acoustic startle response (ASR). However, acute IMO did enhance anxiety in the EPM, in juvenile stressed rats, thereby suggesting that juvenile stress sensitizes rats to the effects of additional stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Fuentes
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Javier Carrasco
- Animal Physiology Unit (School of Biosciences), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonio Armario
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain; Animal Physiology Unit (School of Biosciences), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - Roser Nadal
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain; Psychobiology Unit (School of Psychology), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain.
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Zhang W, Hetzel A, Shah B, Atchley D, Blume SR, Padival MA, Rosenkranz JA. Greater physiological and behavioral effects of interrupted stress pattern compared to daily restraint stress in rats. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102247. [PMID: 25014526 PMCID: PMC4094544 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated stress can trigger a range of psychiatric disorders, including anxiety. The propensity to develop abnormal behaviors after repeated stress is related to the severity, frequency and number of stressors. However, the pattern of stress exposure may contribute to the impact of stress. In addition, the anxiogenic nature of repeated stress exposure can be moderated by the degree of coping that occurs, and can be reflected in homotypic habituation to the repeated stress. However, expectations are not clear when a pattern of stress presentation is utilized that diminishes habituation. The purpose of these experiments is to test whether interrupted stress exposure decreases homotypic habituation and leads to greater effects on anxiety-like behavior in adult male rats. We found that repeated interrupted restraint stress resulted in less overall homotypic habituation compared to repeated daily restraint stress. This was demonstrated by greater production of fecal boli and greater corticosterone response to restraint. Furthermore, interrupted restraint stress resulted in a lower body weight and greater adrenal gland weight than daily restraint stress, and greater anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze. Control experiments demonstrated that these effects of the interrupted pattern could not be explained by differences in the total number of stress exposures, differences in the total number of days that the stress periods encompased, nor could it be explained as a result of only the stress exposures after an interruption from stress. These experiments demonstrate that the pattern of stress exposure is a significant determinant of the effects of repeated stress, and that interrupted stress exposure that decreases habituation can have larger effects than a greater number of daily stress exposures. Differences in the pattern of stress exposure are therefore an important factor to consider when predicting the severity of the effects of repeated stress on psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Andrea Hetzel
- The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Bijal Shah
- The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Derek Atchley
- The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Shannon R. Blume
- The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Mallika A. Padival
- The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - J. Amiel Rosenkranz
- The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Sickmann HM, Li Y, Mørk A, Sanchez C, Gulinello M. Does stress elicit depression? Evidence from clinical and preclinical studies. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2014; 18:123-159. [PMID: 24633891 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2014_292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to stressful situations may induce or deteriorate an already existing depression. Stress-related depression can be elicited at an adolescent/adult age but evidence also shows that early adverse experiences even at the fetal stage may predispose the offspring for later development of depression. The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) plays a key role in regulating the stress response and dysregulation in the system has been linked to depression both in humans and in animal models. This chapter critically reviews clinical and preclinical findings that may explain how stress can cause depression, including HPA-axis changes and alterations beyond the HPA-axis. As stress does not elicit depression in the majority of the population, this motivated research to focus on understanding the biology underlying resilient versus sensitive subjects. Animal models of depression have contributed to a deeper understanding of these mechanisms. Findings from these models will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle M Sickmann
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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