Screening chemicals for thyroid-disrupting activity: A critical comparison of mammalian and amphibian models

How the Xenopus eleutheroembryonic thyroid assay compares to the amphibian metamorphosis assay for detecting thyroid active chemicals

The Xenopus Eleutheroembryonic Thyroid Assay (XETA) was recently published as an OECD Test Guideline for detecting chemicals acting on the thyroid axis. However, the OECD validation did not cover all mechanisms that can potentially be detected by the XETA. This study was therefore initiated to investigate and consolidate the applicability domain of the XETA regarding the following mechanisms: thyroid hormone receptor (THR) agonism, sodium-iodide symporter (NIS) inhibition, thyroperoxidase (TPO) inhibition, deiodinase (DIO) inhibition, glucocorticoid receptor (GR) agonism, and uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase (UDPGT) induction. In total, 22 chemicals identified as thyroid-active or -inactive in Amphibian Metamorphosis Assays (AMAs) were tested using the XETA OECD Test Guideline. The comparison showed that both assays are highly concordant in identifying chemicals with mechanisms of action related to THR agonism, DIO inhibition, and GR agonism. They also consistently identified the UDPGT inducers as thyroid inactive. NIS inhibition, investigated using sodium perchlorate, was not detected in the XETA. TPO inhibition requires further mechanistic investigations as the reference chemicals tested resulted in opposing response directions in the XETA and AMA. This study contributes refining the applicability domain of the XETA, thereby helping to clarify the conditions where it can be used as an ethical alternative to the AMA.

Bisphenol A alters retinal morphology, visually guided behavior, and thyroid hormone levels in zebrafish larvae

Bisphenols are industrial chemicals that are produced in large quantities and have been detected in all parts of the environment as well as in a multitude of different organisms including humans and fish. Several bisphenols, such as bisphenol A (BPA) and bisphenol F, have been shown to disrupt endocrine systems thereby affecting development and reproduction. While numerous studies investigated the effect of bisphenols on estrogen signaling, their impact on the thyroid hormone system (THS), which is vital for neurodevelopment including sensory development, has been explored to a lesser extent. The present work selected BPA as a representative for structurally similar bisphenols and assessed its impact on the THS as well as sensory development and function in zebrafish. To this end, zebrafish were exposed to BPA until up to 8 days post fertilization (dpf) and thyroid hormone levels, eye morphology, and sensory-mediated behaviors were analyzed. Zebrafish larvae exposed to BPA showed altered retinal layering, decreased motility across varying light conditions, and a loss of responsiveness to red light. Furthermore, whole-body levels of the thyroid hormones thyroxine (T4) and 3,5-diiodothyronine (3,5-T2) were significantly decreased in 5 dpf zebrafish. Taken together, BPA disrupted THS homeostasis and compromised visual development and function, which is pivotal for the survival of fish larvae. This work underlines the necessity for ongoing research on BPA and its numerous substitutes, particularly concerning their effects on the THS and neurodevelopment, to ensure a high level of protection for the environment and human health.

Towards regulation of Endocrine Disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in water resources using bioassays - A guide to developing a testing strategy

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are found in every environmental medium and are chemically diverse. Their presence in water resources can negatively impact the health of both human and wildlife. Currently, there are no mandatory screening mandates or regulations for EDC levels in complex water samples globally. Bioassays, which allow quantifying in vivo or in vitro biological effects of chemicals are used commonly to assess acute toxicity in water. The existing OECD framework to identify single-compound EDCs offers a set of bioassays that are validated for the Estrogen-, Androgen-, and Thyroid hormones, and for Steroidogenesis pathways (EATS). In this review, we discussed bioassays that could be potentially used to screen EDCs in water resources, including in vivo and in vitro bioassays using invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and/or mammalians species. Strengths and weaknesses of samples preparation for complex water samples are discussed. We also review how to calculate the Effect-Based Trigger values, which could serve as thresholds to determine if a given water sample poses a risk based on existing quality standards. This work aims to assist governments and regulatory agencies in developing a testing strategy towards regulation of EDCs in water resources worldwide. The main recommendations include 1) opting for internationally validated cell reporter in vitro bioassays to reduce animal use & cost; 2) testing for cell viability (a critical parameter) when using in vitro bioassays; and 3) evaluating the recovery of the water sample preparation method selected. This review also highlights future research avenues for the EDC screening revolution (e.g., 3D tissue culture, transgenic animals, OMICs, and Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs)).

Recent advances in PCB removal from historically contaminated environmental matrices

Despite being drastically restricted in the 1970s, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) still belong among the most hazardous contaminants. The chemical stability and dielectric properties of PCBs made them suitable for a number of applications, which then lead to their ubiquitous presence in the environment. PCBs are highly bioaccumulative and persistent, and their teratogenic, carcinogenic, and endocrine-disrupting features have been widely reported in the literature. This review discusses recent advances in different techniques and approaches to remediate historically contaminated matrices, which are one of the most problematic in regard to decontamination feasibility and efficiency. The current knowledge published in the literature shows that PCBs are not sufficiently removed from the environment by natural processes, and thus, the suitability of some approaches (e.g., natural attenuation) is limited. Physicochemical processes are still the most effective; however, their extensive use is constrained by their high cost and often their destructiveness toward the matrices. Despite their limited reliability, biological methods and their application in combinations with other techniques could be promising. The literature reviewed in this paper documents that a combination of techniques differing in their principles should be a future research direction. Other aspects discussed in this work include the incompleteness of some studies. More attention should be given to the evaluation of toxicity during these processes, particularly in terms of monitoring different modes of toxic action. In addition, decomposition mechanisms and products need to be sufficiently clarified before combined, tailor-made approaches can be employed.

Effect assessment of reclaimed waters and carbamazepine exposure on the thyroid axis of Xenopus laevis: Gene expression modifications

Reclaimed water (RW) obtained from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) is used for irrigation, groundwater recharge, among other potential uses. Although most pollutants are removed, traces of them are frequently found, which can affect organisms and alter the environment. The presence of a myriad of contaminants in RW makes it a complex mixture with very diverse effects and interactions. A previous study, in which tadpoles were exposed to RW and RW spiked with Carbamazepine (CBZ), presented slight thyroid gland stimulation, as suggested by the development acceleration of tadpoles and histological findings in the gland provoked by RW, regardless of the CBZ concentration. To complement this study, the present work analysed the putative molecular working mechanism by selecting six genes coding for the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSHβ), thyroid hormone metabolising enzymes (DIO2, DIO3), thyroid receptors (THRA, THRB), and a thyroid hormone-induced DNA binding protein (Kfl9). Transcriptional activity was studied by Real-Time PCR (RT-PCR) in brains, hind limbs, and tails on exposure days 1, 7, and 21. No significant differences were observed between treatments for each time point, but slight alterations were noted when the time response was analysed. The obtained results indicate that the effects of RW or RW spiked with CBZ are negligible for the genes analysed during the selected exposure periods.

Fish toxicity testing for identification of thyroid disrupting chemicals

Identification of thyroid disrupting chemicals (TDCs), one of the most studied types of endocrine disruptors (EDs), is required according to EU regulations on industrial chemicals, pesticides, and biocides. Following that requirement, the use of fish as a unique non-mammalian model species for identification of EDs may be warranted. This study summarized and evaluated effects of TDCs on fish thyroid sensitive endpoints including thyroid hormones, thyroid related gene expression, immunostaining for thyroid follicles, eye size and pigmentation, swim bladder inflation as well as effects of TDCs on secondary sex characteristics, sex ratio, growth and reproduction. Changes in thyroid sensitive endpoints may reflect the balanced outcome of different processes of the thyroid cascade. Thyroid sensitive endpoints may also be altered by non-thyroid molecular or endocrine pathways as well as non-specific factors such as general toxicity, development, stress, nutrient, and the environmental factors like temperature and pH. Defining chemical specific effects on thyroid sensitive endpoints is important for identification of TDCs. Application of the AOP (adverse outcome pathway) concept could be helpful for defining critical events needed for testing and identification of TDCs in fish.

The Extended Amphibian Metamorphosis Assay: A Thyroid-Specific and Less Animal-Intensive Alternative to the Larval Amphibian Growth and Development Assay

The amphibian metamorphosis assay (AMA; US Environmental Protection Agency [USEPA] test guideline 890.1100 and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development test guideline 231) has been used for more than a decade to assess the potential thyroid-mediated endocrine activity of chemicals. In 2013, in the context of the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program of the USEPA, a Scientific Advisory Panel reviewed the results from 18 studies and recommended changes to the AMA test guideline, including a modification to a fixed-stage design rather than a fixed-time (i.e., 21-d) design. We describe an extended test design for the AMA (or EAMA) that includes thyroid histopathology and time to metamorphosis (Nieuwkoop-Faber [NF] stage 62), to address both the issues with the fixed-time design and the specific question of thyroid-mediated adversity in a shorter assay than the larval amphibian growth and development assay (LAGDA; Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development test guideline 241), using fewer animals and resources. A demonstration study was conducted with the EAMA (up to NF stage 58) using sodium perchlorate. Data analyses and interpretation of the fixed-stage design of the EAMA are more straightforward than the fixed-time design because the fixed-stage design avoids confounded morphometric measurements and thyroid histopathology caused by varying developmental stages at test termination. It also results in greater statistical power to detect metamorphic delays than the fixed-time design. By preferentially extending the AMA to NF stage 62, suitable data can be produced to evaluate thyroid-mediated adversity and preclude the need to perform a LAGDA for thyroid mode of action analysis. The LAGDA remains of further interest should investigations of longer term effects related to sexual development modulated though the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis be necessary. However, reproduction assessment or life cycle testing is currently not addressed in the LAGDA study design. This is better addressed by higher tier studies in fish, which should then include specific thyroid-related endpoints. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2135-2144. © 2021 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

Effect of ethylenethiourea on metamorphosis and ovary development: A comparative study of three larval frogs

Amphibian endocrine systems interact with each other during normal development. Interference with one of the endocrine systems may influence others. We studied the effect of a thyroid inhibitor (ethylenethiourea [ETU]) on metamorphosis and ovary development of three species, Sphaerotheca pashchima, Indosylvirana caesari, and Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis with different larval durations. We treated the tadpoles of these species with 50, 100, and 200 mg/L concentrations of ETU and studied their larval duration, size at metamorphosis, and ovary development. The results revealed that ETU affects metamorphosis, depending on the species and concentration. ETU delayed metamorphosis of E. cyanophlyctis tadpoles and did not affect metamorphosis in S. pashchima tadpoles. Lower concentrations of ETU stimulated metamorphosis in I. caesari tadpoles while high concentration delayed metamorphosis. In the tadpoles (E. cyanophlyctis) treated with higher concentrations of ETU, ovary development was advanced with an increased size of the diplotene oocytes. Oocyte size was smaller in the tadpoles (of I. caesari) treated with lower concentrations of ETU. These results demonstrated that the tadpoles of these species show different responses to the thyroid inhibitor, possibly due to the differences in the larval duration and sensitivity. Inhibition or acceleration of metamorphosis did not interfere in the ovary development of E. cyanophlyctis and I. caesari. These results will be useful in understanding the impact of endocrine disruptors on the interaction between thyroid and sex steroid hormones.

Review and analysis of the potential for glyphosate to interact with the estrogen, androgen and thyroid pathways

Glyphosate was recently evaluated for its potential to interact with the estrogen, androgen and thyroid (EAT) hormone pathways, including steroidogenesis, under the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP), then by Germany, the rapporteur Member State who led the European Annex 1 renewal for glyphosate, and then by the European Food Protection Agency (EFSA) also as part of the Annex 1 renewal for glyphosate. Under the EDSP, 11 Tier 1 assays were run following the USEPA's validated 890-series test guidelines and included five in vitro and six in vivo assays to evaluate the EAT pathways. Steroidogenesis was evaluated as part of the estrogen and androgen pathways. An up-to-date critical review has been conducted that considered results from the EDSP Tier 1 battery, guideline regulatory studies and an in-depth analysis of the literature studies that informed an endocrine assessment. A strength of this evaluation was that it included data across multiple levels of biological organization, and mammalian and nonmammalian test systems. There was strong agreement across the in vitro and in vivo Tier 1 battery, guideline studies and relevant literature studies, demonstrating that glyphosate does not interact with EAT pathways including steroidogenesis. Based on an analysis of the comprehensive toxicology database for glyphosate and the literature, this review has concluded that glyphosate does not have endocrine-disrupting properties through estrogen, androgen, thyroid and steroidogenic modes of action. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Testing for thyroid hormone disruptors, a review of non-mammalian in vivo models

Thyroid hormones (THs) play critical roles in profound changes in many vertebrates, notably in mammalian neurodevelopment, although the precise molecular mechanisms of these fundamental biological processes are still being unravelled. Environmental and health concerns prompted the development of chemical safety testing and, in the context of endocrine disruption, identification of thyroid hormone axis disrupting chemicals (THADCs) remains particularly challenging. As various molecules are known to interfere with different levels of TH signalling, screening tests for THADCs may not rely solely on in vitro ligand/receptor binding to TH receptors. Therefore, alternatives to mammalian in vivo assays featuring TH-related endpoints that are more sensitive than circulatory THs and more rapid than thyroid histopathology are needed to fulfil the ambition of higher throughput screening of the myriad of environmental chemicals. After a detailed introduction of the context, we have listed current assays and parameters to assess thyroid disruption following a literature search of recent publications referring to non-mammalian models. Potential THADCs were mostly investigated in zebrafish and the frog Xenopus laevis, an amphibian model extensively used to study TH signalling.

ERGO: Breaking Down the Wall between Human Health and Environmental Testing of Endocrine Disrupters

ERGO (EndocRine Guideline Optimization) is the acronym of a European Union-funded research and innovation action, that aims to break down the wall between mammalian and non-mammalian vertebrate regulatory testing of endocrine disruptors (EDs), by identifying, developing and aligning thyroid-related biomarkers and endpoints (B/E) for the linkage of effects between vertebrate classes. To achieve this, an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) network covering various modes of thyroid hormone disruption (THD) in multiple vertebrate classes will be developed. The AOP development will be based on existing and new data from in vitro and in vivo experiments with fish, amphibians and mammals, using a battery of different THDs. This will provide the scientifically plausible and evidence-based foundation for the selection of B/E and assays in lower vertebrates, predictive of human health outcomes. These assays will be prioritized for validation at OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) level. ERGO will re-think ED testing strategies from in silico methods to in vivo testing and develop, optimize and validate existing in vivo and early life-stage OECD guidelines, as well as new in vitro protocols for THD. This strategy will reduce requirements for animal testing by preventing duplication of testing in mammals and non-mammalian vertebrates and increase the screening capacity to enable more chemicals to be tested for ED properties.

Critical Review of Read-Across Potential in Testing for Endocrine-Related Effects in Vertebrate Ecological Receptors

Recent regulatory testing programs have been designed to evaluate whether a chemical has the potential to interact with the endocrine system and could cause adverse effects. Some endocrine pathways are highly conserved among vertebrates, providing a potential to extrapolate data generated for one vertebrate taxonomic group to others (i.e., biological read-across). To assess the potential for biological read-across, we reviewed tools and approaches that support species extrapolation for fish, amphibians, birds, and reptiles. For each of the estrogen, androgen, thyroid, and steroidogenesis (EATS) pathways, we considered the pathway conservation across species and the responses of endocrine-sensitive endpoints. The available data show a high degree of confidence in the conservation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis between fish and mammals and the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis between amphibians and mammals. Comparatively, there is less empirical evidence for the conservation of other EATS pathways between other taxonomic groups, but this may be due to limited data. Although more information on sensitive pathways and endpoints would be useful, current developments in the use of molecular target sequencing similarity tools and thoughtful application of the adverse outcome pathway concept show promise for further advancement of read-across approaches for testing EATS pathways in vertebrate ecological receptors. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:739-753. © 2020 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

A critical evaluation of thyroid hormone measurements in OECD test guideline studies: Is there any added value?

Recently several OECD test guidelines were updated to include thyroid hormone measurements for assessing endocrine disruptor potency, which led to an imperative need to align interpretation of these results by the different stakeholders. We therefore evaluated 124 repro screening studies, which showed in 38% of the studies a statistical significant finding for T4 in at least one treatment group, probably due to disturbances of normal homeostasis causing high variation. Consequently, for a thorough evaluation it is extremely important to take the historical control range into account. In conclusion, the current testing approach is not providing specific information needed to assess endocrine disruption, as too often a statistical significant finding is noted and as down-stream adverse effects are not evaluated. Therefore, major modifications are urgently needed. Instead of extending the in vivo experiments, it should be investigated if in vitro assessments will provide more relevant information on human endocrine disruptor potential.

Contaminant and Environmental Influences on Thyroid Hormone Action in Amphibian Metamorphosis

Aquatic and terrestrial environments are increasingly contaminated by anthropogenic sources that include pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and industrial and agricultural chemicals (i. e., pesticides). Many of these substances have the potential to disrupt endocrine function, yet their effect on thyroid hormone (TH) action has garnered relatively little attention. Anuran postembryonic metamorphosis is strictly dependent on TH and perturbation of this process can serve as a sensitive barometer for the detection and mechanistic elucidation of TH disrupting activities of chemical contaminants and their complex mixtures. The ecological threats posed by these contaminants are further exacerbated by changing environmental conditions such as temperature, photoperiod, pond drying, food restriction, and ultraviolet radiation. We review the current knowledge of several chemical and environmental factors that disrupt TH-dependent metamorphosis in amphibian tadpoles as assessed by morphological, thyroid histology, behavioral, and molecular endpoints. Although the molecular mechanisms for TH disruption have yet to be determined for many chemical and environmental factors, several affect TH synthesis, transport or metabolism with subsequent downstream effects. As molecular dysfunction typically precedes phenotypic or histological pathologies, sensitive assays that detect changes in transcript, protein, or metabolite abundance are indispensable for the timely detection of TH disruption. The emergence and application of 'omics techniques-genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and epigenomics-on metamorphosing tadpoles are powerful emerging assets for the rapid, proxy assessment of toxicant or environmental damage for all vertebrates including humans. Moreover, these highly informative 'omics techniques will complement morphological, behavioral, and histological assessments, thereby providing a comprehensive understanding of how TH-dependent signal disruption is propagated by environmental contaminants and factors.

Endpoint sensitivity in Amphibian Metamorphosis Assay

The Amphibian Metamorphosis Assay (AMA) is a screening test for detecting chemicals with thyroid activity. There is little experience in data interpretation and in using AMA data for screening, testing and identifying endocrine disruptors. To investigate the sensitivity of different endpoints of the AMA, the publically available data for 57 thyroid active and inactive chemicals were compiled and analyzed. Endpoints body weight and length appeared as sensitive as apical thyroid responsive endpoints hind limb length (HLL) and developmental stage (DS) for 12 thyroid active chemicals. The sensitivity of body weight, length and HLL was comparable, which is higher than that of DS for 45 thyroid inactive chemicals. The decision logic of the AMA suggests that an advanced development alone indicates thyroid activity. The analysis here showed that advanced development at day 7 could indicate thyroid activity of a chemical. However, advanced development at day 21 may be influenced by thyroid inactive chemicals. Among 39 thyroid inactive chemicals, which affected one or more endpoints, 33% and 77% induced changes in HLL and/or DS at day 7 and 21, respectively; only 10% influenced thyroid histology. These results showed that apical thyroid responsive endpoints HLL and DS are influenced by thyroid active chemicals as well as thyroid inactive chemical. Both endpoints should be combined with thyroid histology for the identification of thyroid active chemicals. The use of the AMA in a testing strategy to identify chemicals with thyroid activity is discussed.

A Case Study Application of the Aggregate Exposure Pathway (AEP) and Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) Frameworks to Facilitate the Integration of Human Health and Ecological End Points for Cumulative Risk Assessment (CRA)

Cumulative risk assessment (CRA) methods promote the use of a conceptual site model (CSM) to apportion exposures and integrate risk from multiple stressors. While CSMs may encompass multiple species, evaluating end points across taxa can be challenging due to data availability and physiological differences among organisms. Adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) describe biological mechanisms leading to adverse outcomes (AOs) by assembling causal pathways with measurable intermediate steps termed key events (KEs), thereby providing a framework for integrating data across species. In this work, we used a case study focused on the perchlorate anion (ClO4-) to highlight the value of the AOP framework for cross-species data integration. Computational models and dose-response data were used to evaluate the effects of ClO4- in 12 species and revealed a dose-response concordance across KEs and taxa. The aggregate exposure pathway (AEP) tracks stressors from sources to the exposures and serves as a complement to the AOP. We discuss how the combined AEP-AOP construct helps to maximize the use of existing data and advances CRA by (1) organizing toxicity and exposure data, (2) providing a mechanistic framework of KEs for integrating data across human health and ecological end points, (3) facilitating cross-species dose-response evaluation, and (4) highlighting data gaps and technical limitations.

Evaluating the credibility of histopathology data in environmental endocrine toxicity studies

Agencies responsible for environmental protection are tasked with developing regulatory guidance that is based on the best available scientific evidence. Histopathology is a common endpoint in toxicologic bioassays; however, because of the subjective nature of this endpoint, and the advanced level of specialized training required for its effective utilization, the reliability of histopathology data can be inconsistent. Consequently, mechanisms for evaluating such data on a case-by-case basis are needed. The purposes of the present review are to describe a methodology that can be used to evaluate the credibility of histopathology findings and to discuss the results of such assessments as applied to real-world data collected from the scientific literature. A key outcome of these efforts was the finding that only 54% of the studies examined contained histopathology data that were considered to be either highly credible or credible, whereas data in 46% of those studies were of equivocal, dubious, or no credibility. In addition, the results indicated that the quality of the data examined tended to decline during the past 15 yr. The ultimate goals of the present review are to draw attention to reliability issues that can affect histopathology results, provide recommendations to improve the quality of this endpoint, and suggest an approach for the expeditious and judicious use of histopathology data in the weight-of-evidence determinations required for hazard and/or risk assessment. This exercise was conducted initially as part of a SETAC Pellston Workshop™ entitled "Environmental Hazard and Risk Assessment Approaches for Endocrine-Active Chemicals (EHRA): Developing Technical Guidance Based on Case Studies to Support Decision Making" that was held in Pensacola, Florida (USA) from 31 January to 5 February 2016. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:601-611. © 2016 SETAC.

Tiered High-Throughput Screening Approach to Identify Thyroperoxidase Inhibitors Within the ToxCast Phase I and II Chemical Libraries

High-throughput screening for potential thyroid-disrupting chemicals requires a system of assays to capture multiple molecular-initiating events (MIEs) that converge on perturbed thyroid hormone (TH) homeostasis. Screening for MIEs specific to TH-disrupting pathways is limited in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ToxCast screening assay portfolio. To fill 1 critical screening gap, the Amplex UltraRed-thyroperoxidase (AUR-TPO) assay was developed to identify chemicals that inhibit TPO, as decreased TPO activity reduces TH synthesis. The ToxCast phase I and II chemical libraries, comprised of 1074 unique chemicals, were initially screened using a single, high concentration to identify potential TPO inhibitors. Chemicals positive in the single-concentration screen were retested in concentration-response. Due to high false-positive rates typically observed with loss-of-signal assays such as AUR-TPO, we also employed 2 additional assays in parallel to identify possible sources of nonspecific assay signal loss, enabling stratification of roughly 300 putative TPO inhibitors based upon selective AUR-TPO activity. A cell-free luciferase inhibition assay was used to identify nonspecific enzyme inhibition among the putative TPO inhibitors, and a cytotoxicity assay using a human cell line was used to estimate the cellular tolerance limit. Additionally, the TPO inhibition activities of 150 chemicals were compared between the AUR-TPO and an orthogonal peroxidase oxidation assay using guaiacol as a substrate to confirm the activity profiles of putative TPO inhibitors. This effort represents the most extensive TPO inhibition screening campaign to date and illustrates a tiered screening approach that focuses resources, maximizes assay throughput, and reduces animal use.

Impacts of endocrine disrupting chemicals on reproduction in wildlife

The European Environment Agency (The Weybridge + 15 (1996-2011) report. EEA Technical report, vol 2. Copenhagen, 2012) and the United Nations Environment programme together with the World Health Organisation (State of the science of endocrine disrupting chemicals-2012. Geneva, Switzerland) both recently published major and highly authoritative reviews of endocrine disrupting chemicals in the natural environment and their effects on reproduction and health in both humans and wildlife. One surprising conclusion to emerge from these reviews was that there are relatively few well documented reports of endocrine disruption (ED) in wild mammals, mainly because much of the available evidence is correlative and does not conclusively demonstrate that the chemicals in question cause the physiological and phenotypic problems attributed to them. However, based on strong evidence from studies of wild birds, reptiles, invertebrates, and laboratory animals, it is difficult to imagine that wild mammals would be the exception. This chapter is therefore included to emphasize the point that the role of reproductive science within wildlife conservation is much broader than a narrow focus on artificial breeding technologies.

Current perspectives on the use of alternative species in human health and ecological hazard assessments

BACKGROUND

Traditional animal toxicity tests can be time and resource intensive, thereby limiting the number of chemicals that can be comprehensively tested for potential hazards to humans and/or to the environment.

OBJECTIVE

We compared several types of data to demonstrate how alternative models can be used to inform both human and ecological risk assessment.

METHODS

We reviewed and compared data derived from high throughput in vitro assays to fish reproductive tests for seven chemicals. We investigated whether human-focused assays can be predictive of chemical hazards in the environment. We examined how conserved pathways enable the use of nonmammalian models, such as fathead minnow, zebrafish, and Xenopus laevis, to understand modes of action and to screen for chemical risks to humans.

RESULTS

We examined how dose-dependent responses of zebrafish embryos exposed to flusilazole can be extrapolated, using pathway point of departure data and reverse toxicokinetics, to obtain human oral dose hazard values that are similar to published mammalian chronic toxicity values for the chemical. We also examined how development/safety data for human health can be used to help assess potential risks of pharmaceuticals to nontarget species in the environment.

DISCUSSION

Using several examples, we demonstrate that pathway-based analysis of chemical effects provides new opportunities to use alternative models (nonmammalian species, in vitro tests) to support decision making while reducing animal use and associated costs.

CONCLUSIONS

These analyses and examples demonstrate how alternative models can be used to reduce cost and animal use while being protective of both human and ecological health.

Chlorpyrifos: weight of evidence evaluation of potential interaction with the estrogen, androgen, or thyroid pathways

Chlorpyrifos was selected for EPA's Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program (EDSP) based on widespread use and potential for human and environmental exposures. The purpose of the program is to screen chemicals for their potential to interact with the estrogen, androgen, or thyroid pathways. A battery of 11 assays was completed for chlorpyrifos in accordance with test guidelines developed for EDSP Tier 1 screening. To determine potential endocrine activity, a weight-of-evidence (WoE) evaluation was completed for chlorpyrifos, which included the integration of EDSP assay results with data from regulatory guideline studies and the published literature. This WoE approach was based on the OECD conceptual framework for testing and assessment of potential endocrine-disrupting chemicals and consisted of a systematic evaluation of data, progressing from simple to complex across multiple levels of biological organization. The conclusion of the WoE evaluation is that chlorpyrifos demonstrates no potential to interact with the estrogen, androgen, or thyroid pathways at doses below the dose levels that inhibit cholinesterase. Therefore, regulatory exposure limits for chlorpyrifos, which are based on cholinesterase inhibition, are sufficient to protect against potential endocrine alterations. Based on the results of this WoE evaluation, there is no scientific justification for pursuing additional endocrine testing for chlorpyrifos.

Interactions between chemical and climate stressors: a role for mechanistic toxicology in assessing climate change risks

Incorporation of global climate change (GCC) effects into assessments of chemical risk and injury requires integrated examinations of chemical and nonchemical stressors. Environmental variables altered by GCC (temperature, precipitation, salinity, pH) can influence the toxicokinetics of chemical absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion as well as toxicodynamic interactions between chemicals and target molecules. In addition, GCC challenges processes critical for coping with the external environment (water balance, thermoregulation, nutrition, and the immune, endocrine, and neurological systems), leaving organisms sensitive to even slight perturbations by chemicals when pushed to the limits of their physiological tolerance range. In simplest terms, GCC can make organisms more sensitive to chemical stressors, while alternatively, exposure to chemicals can make organisms more sensitive to GCC stressors. One challenge is to identify potential interactions between nonchemical and chemical stressors affecting key physiological processes in an organism. We employed adverse outcome pathways, constructs depicting linkages between mechanism-based molecular initiating events and impacts on individuals or populations, to assess how chemical- and climate-specific variables interact to lead to adverse outcomes. Case examples are presented for prospective scenarios, hypothesizing potential chemical-GCC interactions, and retrospective scenarios, proposing mechanisms for demonstrated chemical-climate interactions in natural populations. Understanding GCC interactions along adverse outcome pathways facilitates extrapolation between species or other levels of organization, development of hypotheses and focal areas for further research, and improved inputs for risk and resource injury assessments.

Alternatives to in vivo tests to detect endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in fish and amphibians--screening for estrogen, androgen and thyroid hormone disruption

Endocrine disruption is considered a highly relevant hazard for environmental risk assessment of chemicals, plant protection products, biocides and pharmaceuticals. Therefore, screening tests with a focus on interference with estrogen, androgen, and thyroid hormone pathways in fish and amphibians have been developed. However, they use a large number of animals and short-term alternatives to animal tests would be advantageous. Therefore, the status of alternative assays for endocrine disruption in fish and frogs was assessed by a detailed literature analysis. The aim was to (i) determine the strengths and limitations of alternative assays and (ii) present conclusions regarding chemical specificity, sensitivity, and correlation with in vivo data. Data from 1995 to present were collected related to the detection/testing of estrogen-, androgen-, and thyroid-active chemicals in the following test systems: cell lines, primary cells, fish/frog embryos, yeast and cell-free systems. The review shows that the majority of alternative assays measure effects directly mediated by receptor binding or resulting from interference with hormone synthesis. Other mechanisms were rarely analysed. A database was established and used for a quantitative and comparative analysis. For example, a high correlation was observed between cell-free ligand binding and cell-based reporter cell assays, between fish and frog estrogenic data and between fish embryo tests and in vivo reproductive effects. It was concluded that there is a need for a more systematic study of the predictive capacity of alternative tests and ways to reduce inter- and intra-assay variability.

Thyroid hormone-dependent development in Xenopus laevis: a sensitive screen of thyroid hormone signaling disruption by municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent

Because thyroid hormones (THs) are conserved modulators of development and physiology, identification of compounds adversely affecting TH signaling is critical to human and wildlife health. Anurans are an established model for studying disruption of TH signaling because metamorphosis is dependent upon the thyroid system. In order to strengthen this model and identify new gene transcript biomarkers for TH disruption, we performed DNA microarray analysis of Xenopus laevis tadpole tail transcriptomes following treatment with triiodothyronine (T(3)). Comparison of these results with previous studies in frogs and mammals identified 36 gene transcripts that were TH-sensitive across clades. We then tested molecular biomarkers for sensitivity to disruption by exposure to wastewater effluent (WWE). X. laevis tadpoles, exposed to WWE from embryo through metamorphosis, exhibited an increased developmental rate compared to controls. Cultured tadpole tails showed dramatic increases in levels of four TH-sensitive gene transcripts (thyroid hormone receptor β (TRβ), deiodinase type II (DIO2), and corticotropin releasing hormone binding protein (CRHBP), fibroblast activation protein α (FAPα)) when exposed to T(3) and WWE extracts. TRβ, DIO2, and CRHBP were identified as TH sensitive in other studies, while FAPα mRNA transcripts were highly TH sensitive in our array. The results validate the array and demonstrate TH-disrupting activity by WWE. Our findings demonstrate the usefulness of cross-clade analysis for identification of gene transcripts that provide sensitivity to endocrine disruption. Further, the results suggest that development is disrupted by exposure to complex mixes of compounds found in WWE possibly through interference with TH signaling.

Thyroid axis disruption in juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta) exposed to the flame retardant β-tetrabromoethylcyclohexane (β-TBECH) via the diet

Tetrabromoethylcyclohexane (TBECH) is an additive brominated flame retardant used in domestic and industrial applications. It has been detected in wildlife, and there is early evidence that it is an endocrine disruptor. Whereas other brominated flame retardants with similar physicochemical properties have been shown to disrupt the thyroid axis, no such evaluation has been conducted for TBECH. To elucidate this, juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta) were fed either a control diet or diets containing low, medium, or high doses of β-TBECH, the isomer most frequently detected in wildlife, for 56 days (uptake phase) followed by a control diet for an additional 77 days (depuration phase). Eight fish per treatment were lethally sampled on uptake days 7, 14, 21, 35, 49, and 56 and on depuration days 7, 21, 35, 49, and 77 to assess fish condition, circulating free and total triiodothyronine and thyroxine, and thyroid epithelial cell height. Although there was no effect on condition factor, there was a significant reduction in total plasma thyroxine in the high dose group and a significant increase in mean thyroid epithelial cell height in the low, medium, and high dose groups during the uptake phase, whereas there were no differences in the depuration phase. These results indicate that β-TBECH may modulate the thyroid axis in fish at environmentally relevant concentrations.

Zebrafish eleutheroembryos provide a suitable vertebrate model for screening chemicals that impair thyroid hormone synthesis

Thyroxine-immunofluorescence quantitative disruption test (TIQDT) was designed to provide a simple, rapid, alternative bioassay for assessing the potential of chemical pollutants and drugs to disrupt thyroid gland function. This study demonstrated that zebrafish eleutheroembryos provided a suitable vertebrate model, not only for screening the potential thyroid disrupting effect of molecules, but also for estimating the potential hazards associated with exposure to chemicals directly impairing thyroxine (T4) synthesis. Amitrole, potassium perchlorate, potassium thiocyanate, methimazole (MMI), phloroglucinol, 6-propyl-2-thiouracil, ethylenethiourea, benzophenone-2, resorcinol, pyrazole, sulfamethoxazole, sodium bromide, mancozeb, and genistein were classified as thyroid gland function disruptors. Concordance between TIQDT on zebrafish and mammalian published data was very high and the physiological relevance of T4-intrafollicular content was clearly higher than regulation at the transcriptional level of tg or slc5a5. Moreover, concentration-response analysis provided information about the thyroid disrupting potency and hazard of selected positive compounds. Finally, the effect of perchlorate, but not MMI, was completely rescued by low-micromolar amounts of iodide. TIQDT performed on zebrafish eleutheroembryos is an alternative whole-organism screening assay that provides relevant information for environmental and human risk assessments.

The obesogen hypothesis: a shift of focus from the periphery to the hypothalamus

The obesogen concept proposes that environmental contaminants may be contributing to the epidemic of obesity and its related pathology, metabolic disorder. The first references to such a notion appeared at the beginning of the current decade, with the hypothesis that the correlation between increasing incidence of obesity and enhanced industrial chemical production was not simply coincidental, but potentially causally related. The next event was the introduction of the term "obesogen" as representing an environmental pollutant that adversely affects various aspects of adipose tissue functions. More recently, the concept was extended to include substances that may modify metabolic balance at the central, hypothalamic level. The actions of two prime candidate obesogens, tributyltin (TBT) and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), acting at the central level are the main focus of this review. Having discussed the evidence for contaminant accumulation in the environment and in human tissues and the potential mechanisms of action, data are provided showing that these two widespread pollutants modify hypothalamic gene regulations. Our studies are based on maternal exposure and measurement of effects in the progeny, mainly based on in vivo gene reporter assays. Such models are obviously pertinent to testing current hypotheses that propose that early exposure might exert effects on later development and physiological functions. The potential molecular mechanisms involved are discussed, as are the broader physiological consequences of these hypothalamic dysregulations.