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Hermawan A, Amrillah T, Riapanitra A, Ong W, Yin S. Prospects and Challenges of MXenes as Emerging Sensing Materials for Flexible and Wearable Breath-Based Biomarker Diagnosis. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2100970. [PMID: 34318999 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202100970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A fully integrated, flexible, and functional sensing device for exhaled breath analysis drastically transforms conventional medical diagnosis to non-invasive, low-cost, real-time, and personalized health care. 2D materials based on MXenes offer multiple advantages for accurately detecting various breath biomarkers compared to conventional semiconducting oxides. High surface sensitivity, large surface-to-weight ratio, room temperature detection, and easy-to-assemble structures are vital parameters for such sensing devices in which MXenes have demonstrated all these properties both experimentally and theoretically. So far, MXenes-based flexible sensor is successfully fabricated at a lab-scale and is predicted to be translated into clinical practice within the next few years. This review presents a potential application of MXenes as emerging materials for flexible and wearable sensor devices. The biomarkers from exhaled breath are described first, with emphasis on metabolic processes and diseases indicated by abnormal biomarkers. Then, biomarkers sensing performances provided by MXenes families and the enhancement strategies are discussed. The method of fabrications toward MXenes integration into various flexible substrates is summarized. Finally, the fundamental challenges and prospects, including portable integration with Internet-of-Thing (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI), are addressed to realize marketization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angga Hermawan
- Faculty of Textile Science and Technology Shinshu University 3‐15‐1 Tokida Ueda Nagano 386‐8567 Japan
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Material (IMRAM) Tohoku University 2‐1‐1 Katahira, Aoba‐ku Sendai Miyagi 980‐8577 Japan
| | - Tahta Amrillah
- Department of Nanotechnology Faculty of Advanced Technology and Multidiscipline Universitas Airlangga Surabaya 60115 Indonesia
| | - Anung Riapanitra
- Department of Chemistry Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science Jenderal Soedirman University Purwokerto 53122 Indonesia
| | - Wee‐Jun Ong
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering Xiamen University Malaysia Selangor Darul Ehsan 43900 Malaysia
- Center of Excellence for NaNo Energy & Catalysis Technology (CONNECT) Xiamen University Malaysia Sepang Selangor Darul Ehsan 43900 Malaysia
| | - Shu Yin
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Material (IMRAM) Tohoku University 2‐1‐1 Katahira, Aoba‐ku Sendai Miyagi 980‐8577 Japan
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2
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Monitoring of residual solvent contamination in herbal medicinal products in Ghana: A pilot study. SCIENTIFIC AFRICAN 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e00825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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3
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Reversible Nephropathy Associated with Jet Fuel Exposure. Case Rep Nephrol 2020; 2020:2932415. [PMID: 32802530 PMCID: PMC7415096 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2932415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) with progression to oliguric or anuric acute renal failure (ARF) is often related to use of well-known nephrotoxic agents including medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEis)/angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), and certain classes of antibiotics. Hyperosmolar IV contrast is also a well-known nephrotoxic agent. Severe sepsis with subsequent hypotension, marked hyperglycemia, and those with difficulty accessing water or with poor oral intake can also present with acute kidney injury related to kidney hypoperfusion, dehydration, and volume depletion. In this case report, we discover and discuss the possible effects of regular and daily occupational exposure of jet fuel (a mixture of hydrocarbons) on renal function. Jet fuel is an underdescribed and not well-known nephrotoxic agent; however, its direct toxicity on kidney function appears to be reversible with removal of exposure and aggressive fluid hydration.
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Richtwerte für Dimethylbenzole in der Innenraumluft. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2015; 58:1378-89. [DOI: 10.1007/s00103-015-2252-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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5
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Ketan VK, Bhavyata K, Linzbuoy G, Hyacinth HN. Renal and hepatotoxic alterations in adult mice on inhalation of specific mixture of organic solvents. Toxicol Ind Health 2013; 31:1158-64. [PMID: 23637306 DOI: 10.1177/0748233713485892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study was aimed at investigating alterations in renal and hepatic toxicity induced by exposing to a combination of three solvents, namely, benzene, toluene and xylene in adult mice. The mice were divided into three groups (control, low-dose-treated (450 ppm) and high-dose (675 ppm) groups) using randomization methods. The treated groups were exposed to vapours of a mixture of benzene, toluene and xylene at doses of 450 and 675 ppm, for 6 h day(-1) for a short-term of 7-day exposure period. The study revealed that the solvent exposure resulted in an increase in the weight of liver and kidney as compared to the control. Biochemical analyses indicated a significant decline in the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase in both the treated groups, with concomitant increase in lipid peroxidation. Liver aminotransferases (alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase) were elevated with significant alterations in the levels of protein, creatinine and cholesterol in these tissues upon solvent exposure. Correlated with these changes, serum thyroid hormones T3 and T4 were also significantly altered. This study, therefore, demonstrates that inhalation of vapours from the solvent mixture resulted in significant dose-dependent biochemical and functional changes in the vital tissues (liver and kidney) studied. The study has specific relevance since humans are increasingly being exposed to such solvents due to increased industrial use in such combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vaghasia K Ketan
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Technology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Kalariya Bhavyata
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Technology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - George Linzbuoy
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Technology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
| | - Highland N Hyacinth
- Department of Zoology and Biomedical Technology, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
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6
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Study of the potential oxidative stress induced by six solvents in the rat brain. Neurotoxicology 2012; 35:71-83. [PMID: 23270871 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2012.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2012] [Revised: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms of action involved in the neurotoxicity of solvents are poorly understood. In vitro studies have suggested that the effects of some solvents might be due to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This study assesses hydroxyl radical (OH) generation and measures malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the cerebral tissue of rats exposed to six solvents (n-hexane, n-octane, toluene, n-butylbenzene, cyclohexane and 1,2,4-trimethylcyclohexane). Three of these solvents have been shown to generate ROS in studies carried out in vitro on granular cell cultures from rat cerebellum. We assessed OH production by quantifying the rate of formation of 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid using a trapping agent, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, infused via the microdialysis probe, into the prefrontal cortex of rats exposed intraperitoneally to the solvents. Extracellular MDA was quantified in microdialysates collected from the prefrontal cortex of rats exposed, 6h/day for ten days, to 1000ppm of the solvents (except for n-butylbenzene, generated at 830ppm) in inhalation chambers. Tissue levels of free and total MDA were measured in different brain structures for rats acutely (intraperitoneal route) and sub-acutely (inhalation) exposed to solvents. None of the six solvents studied increased the production of hydroxyl radicals in the prefrontal cortex after acute administration. Nor did they increase extracellular or tissue levels of MDA after 10 days' inhalation exposure. On the other hand, a decrease in the concentrations of free MDA in brain structures was observed after acute administration of n-hexane, 1,2,4-trimethylcyclohexane, toluene and n-butylbenzene. Therefore, data of this study carried out in vivo did not confirm observations made in vitro on cell cultures.
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Mangor-Jensen A, Fyhn HJ. Critical analysis of the effect of oil-exposure on osmotic properties of developing eggs and larvae of the cod,Gadus MorhuaL. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/00364827.1987.10419745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Tabrez S, Ahmad M. Toxicity, biomarkers, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene and its metabolites: a review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART C, ENVIRONMENTAL CARCINOGENESIS & ECOTOXICOLOGY REVIEWS 2009; 27:178-196. [PMID: 19657920 DOI: 10.1080/10590500903091340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a prevalent occupational and environmental contaminant that has been reported to cause a variety of toxic effects. This article reviews toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity caused by the exposure of TCE and its metabolites in the living system as well as on their (TCE and its metabolites) toxicity biomarkers.
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9
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Wilson AGE, Hall LJ. Technology Review: Application of Whole-Body Autoradiography in Toxicology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3109/15376519109044566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Banks HT, Potter LK. Probabilistic methods for addressing uncertainty and variability in biological models: application to a toxicokinetic model. Math Biosci 2004; 192:193-225. [PMID: 15627493 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2004.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Population variability and uncertainty are important features of biological systems that must be considered when developing mathematical models for these systems. In this paper we present probability-based parameter estimation methods that account for such variability and uncertainty. Theoretical results that establish well-posedness and stability for these methods are discussed. A probabilistic parameter estimation technique is then applied to a toxicokinetic model for trichloroethylene using several types of simulated data. Comparison with results obtained using a standard, deterministic parameter estimation method suggests that the probabilistic methods are better able to capture population variability and uncertainty in model parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- H T Banks
- Center for Research in Scientific Computation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8205, USA.
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11
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Sanzgiri UY, Srivatsan V, Muralidhara S, Dallas CE, Bruckner JV. Uptake, distribution, and elimination of carbon tetrachloride in rat tissues following inhalation and ingestion exposures. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1997; 143:120-9. [PMID: 9073600 DOI: 10.1006/taap.1996.8079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) has been studied extensively for its hepatotoxic effects. There is a paucity of information, however, about its tissue deposition following administration by different routes and patterns of exposure. The specific objective of this study was to delineate the uptake, distribution, and elimination of CCl4 in tissues of rats subjected to equivalent oral and inhalation exposures. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (325-375 g) were exposed to 1000 ppm CCl4 for 2 hr. The total absorbed dose (179 mg CCl4/kg bw) was administered to other groups of rats as a single oral bolus or by constant gastric infusion over a period of 2 hr. Animals were terminated at selected time intervals during and postexposure and tissues (liver, kidney, lung, brain, fat, skeletal muscle, spleen, heart, and GI tract) removed for measurement of their CCl4 content by headspace gas chromatography. CCl4 levels in all tissues were much lower in the gastric infusion group than in the oral bolus and inhalation groups. Inhalation resulted in relatively high tissue CCl4 concentrations, because inhaled chemicals enter the arterial circulation and are transported directly to organs throughout the body. It seems logical that the liver should accumulate more CCl4 following ingestion than following inhalation. This did not prove to be the case when comparing liver AUC values for the gastric infusion and inhalation groups. Substantially lower CCl4 concentrations in the liver of animals in the gastric infusion group appeared to be due to very rapid metabolic clearance of the relatively small amounts of CCl4 entering the liver over the 2-hr infusion period. It was hypothesized that the capacity of first-pass hepatic and pulmonary elimination could be exceeded, if CCl4 were given as a single, large oral bolus. Indeed, deposition of CCl4 in all tissues was greater in the oral bolus group than in the gastric infusion group. The time courses of uptake and elimination of CCl4 appeared to be governed largely by a tissue's rate of blood perfusion and lipid content. CCl4 was rapidly taken up, for example, by the brain and liver. These organs' CCl4 content then diminished, as CCl4 was metabolized and redistributed to adipose tissue. CCl4 accumulated slowly, but to very high concentrations, in fat and remained elevated for a prolonged period. Thus, concentrations of CCl4 in some tissues may not be reflective of blood levels. The most appropriate measure of internal dose for CCl4 acute hepatotoxicity appears to be the area under tissue concentrations versus time curve from 0 to 30 min. Tissue time-course data sets are essential for the refinement and validation of physiological models for CCl4 and other volatile organic chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Y Sanzgiri
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Athens 30602-2356, USA
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12
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Gist GL, Burg JR. Trichloroethylene--a review of the literature from a health effects perspective. Toxicol Ind Health 1995; 11:253-307. [PMID: 7482570 DOI: 10.1177/074823379501100301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
This report reviews the literature on the impact of exposure to trichloroethylene (TCE) on human health. Special emphasis is given to the health effects reported in excess of national norms by participants in the TCE Subregistry of the Volatile Organic Compounds Registry of the National Exposure Registries--persons with documented exposure to TCE through drinking and use of contaminated water. The health effects reported in excess by some or all of the sex and age groups studied were speech and hearing impairments, effects of stroke, liver problems, anemia and other blood disorders, diabetes, kidney disease, urinary tract disorders, and skin rashes.
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Affiliation(s)
- G L Gist
- Exposure and Disease Registry Branch, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA
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13
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Ashby J, Brady A, Elcombe CR, Elliott BM, Ishmael J, Odum J, Tugwood JD, Kettle S, Purchase IF. Mechanistically-based human hazard assessment of peroxisome proliferator-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. Hum Exp Toxicol 1994; 13 Suppl 2:S1-117. [PMID: 7857698 DOI: 10.1177/096032719401300201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 227] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
In this review we have evaluated the relationship between peroxisome proliferation and hepatocarcinogenesis. To do so, we identified all chemicals known to produce peroxisome proliferation and selected those for which there are data (on peroxisome proliferation and hepatocarcinogenesis) which meet certain criteria chosen to facilitate comparison of these phenomena. The summarised data and definition of the methodology used has been collected in appendices. These comparisons enabled us to evaluate the relationship between these phenomena using reliable data. As there is a good correlation between them, we further explored the mechanisms of action that have been proposed (direct genotoxic activity, production of hydrogen peroxide, cell proliferation and receptor activation). The relationship between these events in other species, including humans, was also reviewed and finally an overview of the assessment of human hazard is presented in section IX. Some of the first chemicals which were shown to produce peroxisome proliferation were also hepatocarcinogens whose carcinogenicity could not be readily explained by genotoxic activity. This raised the suggestion that the unusual phenomenon of peroxisome proliferation was intricately linked to the carcinogenic activity of these agents. Three questions have exercised the attention of regulatory, industrial and academic toxicology since then; are chemicals which elicit peroxisome proliferation in the liver actually a coherent class of chemical carcinogens?; does the early biological phenomenon of peroxisome proliferation have real predictive value for and mechanistic association with rodent carcinogenesis?; and what hazard/risk do these agents pose to humans that may be exposed to them? Whether peroxisome proliferators are indeed a discrete class of rodent carcinogens would appear to be the single, most important question. If so, then the assumptions and procedures relevant to human hazard and risk assessment should be applied to the class and should be essentially generic; if not, each chemical should be considered independently. Our critical analysis of the published data for over 70 agents which have been shown to possess intrinsic ability to induce peroxisome proliferation in the livers of rodents has led to the conclusion that there exists a strong correlation between peroxisome proliferation as n early effect in the liver and hepatocarcinogenicity in chronic exposure studies. An almost perfect correlation was observed between the induction of peroxisomes in the rodent liver and the eventual appearance of tumours following chronic exposure The few exceptions to this were largely explainable (section II).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- J Ashby
- Zeneca Ltd, Central Toxicology Laboratory, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK
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Appendix B: Chlorinated alkanes. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0273-2300(05)80027-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- R Von Burg
- ICF Kaiser Engineering, Oakland, CA 94612
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Katakura Y, Kishi R, Okui T, Ikeda T, Miyake H. Distribution of radioactivity from 14C-formaldehyde in pregnant mice and their fetuses. BRITISH JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MEDICINE 1993; 50:176-182. [PMID: 8435351 PMCID: PMC1061257 DOI: 10.1136/oem.50.2.176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of 14C after the administration of 14C-formaldehyde was studied in pregnant mice by a whole body low temperature autoradiographic technique. The concentrations of formaldehyde and its metabolites in maternal and fetal blood and tissues were determined in unsectioned tissues by liquid scintillation spectrophotometry. The binding of 14C from 14C-formaldehyde to cells and DNA in maternal and fetal mouse liver was also measured. Radioactivity of 14C deriving from 14C-formaldehyde was found immediately after injection, and showed strong accumulation and retention three hours after injection. The organs that had high concentrations at all studied survival intervals were maternal liver, intestinal mucosa, bone marrow, kidneys, and salivary glands. Considerable amounts of radioactivity were found in the fetuses at six hours after injection, and the concentrations were almost the same as in the maternal tissues. The elimination of 14C-formaldehyde and metabolites from the placenta and fetus occurred more slowly than from maternal tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Katakura
- Department of Public Health, Sapporo Medical College, Japan
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17
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Odum J, Foster JR, Green T. A mechanism for the development of Clara cell lesions in the mouse lung after exposure to trichloroethylene. Chem Biol Interact 1992; 83:135-53. [PMID: 1505057 DOI: 10.1016/0009-2797(92)90042-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Female CD-1 mice exposed to trichloroethylene (6 h/day) at concentrations from 20-2000 ppm developed a highly specific lung lesion after a single exposure, characterised by vacuolation of the Clara cells, the number of cells affected increasing with increasing dose level. At the highest dose levels pyknosis of the Clara cells was apparent. After 5 days of repeated exposures the lesion had resolved but exposure of mice following a 2-day break resulted in recurrence of the lesion. The changes in mouse lung Clara cells were accompanied by a marked loss of cytochrome P-450 activities. No morphological changes were seen in the lungs of rats exposed to either 500 or 1000 ppm trichloroethylene. Isolated mouse lung Clara cells were shown to metabolize trichloroethylene to chloral, trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid. Chloral was the major metabolite. Trichloroethanol glucuronide was not detected. In comparative experiments using mouse hepatocytes the major metabolites were trichloroethanol and its glucuronide conjugate. The activity of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase was compared in mouse lung Clara cells and hepatocytes using two phenolic substrates and trichloroethanol. Hepatocytes readily formed glucuronides from all three substrates whereas Clara cells were only active with the two phenolic substrates. The three major metabolites of trichloroethylene, chloral, trichloroethanol and trichloroacetic acid were each dosed to mice and of these metabolites, only chloral had an effect on mouse lung causing a lesion (Clara cell) identical to that seen with trichloroethylene. It is proposed that the failure of Clara cells to conjugate trichloroethanol leads to an accumulation of chloral which results in cytotoxicity. The known genotoxicity of chloral suggests that this lesion may be related to the development of lung tumours in mice exposed to trichloroethylene by inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Odum
- ICI Central Toxicology Laboratory, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, UK
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Davidson IW, Beliles RP. Consideration of the target organ toxicity of trichloroethylene in terms of metabolite toxicity and pharmacokinetics. Drug Metab Rev 1991; 23:493-599. [PMID: 1802654 DOI: 10.3109/03602539109029772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Trichloroethylene (TRI) is readily absorbed into the body through the lungs and gastrointestinal mucosa. Exposure to TRI can occur from contamination of air, water, and food; and this contamination may be sufficient to produce adverse effects in the exposed populations. Elimination of TRI involves two major processes: pulmonary excretion of unchanged TRI and relatively rapid hepatic biotransformation to urinary metabolites. The principal site of metabolism of TRI is the liver, but the lung and possibly other tissues also metabolize TRI, and dichlorovinyl-cysteine (DCVC) is formed in the kidney. Humans appear to metabolize TRI extensively. Both rats and mice also have a considerable capacity to metabolize TRI, and the maximal capacities of the rat versus the mouse appear to be more closely related to relative body surface areas than to body weights. Metabolism is almost linearly related to dose at lower doses, becoming dose dependent at higher doses, and is probably best described overall by Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Major end metabolites are trichloroethanol (TCE), trichloroethanol-glucuronide, and trichloroacetic acid (TCA). Metabolism also produces several possibly reactive intermediate metabolites, including chloral, TRI-epoxide, dichlorovinyl-cysteine (DCVC), dichloroacetyl chloride, dichloroacetic acid (DCA), and chloroform, which is further metabolized to phosgene that may covalently bind extensively to cellular lipids and proteins, and, to a much lesser degree, to DNA. The toxicities associated with TRI exposure are considered to reside in its reactive metabolites. The mutagenic and carcinogenic potential of TRI is also generally thought to be due to reactive intermediate biotransformation products rather than the parent molecule itself, although the biological mechanisms by which specific TRI metabolites exert their toxic activity observed in experimental animals and, in some cases, humans are not known. The binding intensity of TRI metabolites is greater in the liver than in the kidney. Comparative studies of biotransformation of TRI in rats and mice failed to detect any major species or strain differences in metabolism. Quantitative differences in metabolism across species probably result from differences in metabolic rate and enterohepatic recirculation of metabolites. Aging rats have less capacity for microsomal metabolism, as reflected by covalent binding of TRI, than either adult or young rats. This is likely to be the same in other species, including humans. The experimental evidence is consistent with the metabolic pathways for TRI being qualitatively similar in mice, rats, and humans. The formation of the major metabolites--TCE, TCE-glucuronide, and TCA--may be explained by the production of chloral as an intermediate after the initial oxidation of TRI to TRI-epoxide.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- I W Davidson
- Bowman Gray School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Winston-Salem, NC 27103
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Ghantous H, Dencker L, Gabrielsson J, Danielsson BR, Bergman K. Accumulation and turnover of metabolites of toluene and xylene in nasal mucosa and olfactory bulb in the mouse. PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY 1990; 66:87-92. [PMID: 2315269 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1990.tb00711.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Autoradiography of male mice following inhalation of the radioactively labelled solvents, toluene, xylene, and styrene, revealed an accumulation of non-volatile metabolites in the nasal mucosa and olfactory bulb of the brain. Since no accumulation occurred after benzene inhalation, it was assumed that the activity represented aromatic acids, which are known metabolites of these solvents. This was supported by the finding that also radioactive benzoic acid (main metabolite of toluene) and salicylic acid accumulated in the olfactory bulb. High-performance liquid chromatography revealed that after toluene inhalation (for 1 hr), nasal mucosa and olfactory bulb contained mainly benzoic acid, with a strong accumulation in relation to blood plasma, and considerably less of its glycine conjugate, hippuric acid. After xylene inhalation, on the other hand, methyl hippuric acid dominated over the non-conjugated metabolite, toluic acid. The results indicate a specific, possibly axonal flow-mediated transport of aromatic acids from the nasal mucosa to the olfactory lobe of the brain. The toxicological significance of these results remains to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ghantous
- Department of Toxicology, Uppsala University, Sweden
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Abstract
1,1,2-Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a widely used halogenated solvent, produced in hundreds of millions of kg each year for industrial purposes. Occupational and environmental exposure of human populations to TCE has been reported in industrialized areas. Long-term carcinogenicity studies in rodents demonstrate that exposure to high doses of TCE results in the induction of liver and lung tumors in the mouse, and tumors of the kidney and the testis in the rat. An indirect mechanism, based on the stimulation of liver peroxisome proliferation by TCE metabolites, was proposed to explain species differences in TCE hepatocarcinogenicity. Mutagenicity studies indicate that TCE is weakly active both in vitro, where liver microsomes produce electrophilic TCE metabolites, and also in vivo in mouse bone marrow, where high rates of micronuclei, but no structural chromosome aberrations, are found. Among TCE metabolites, trichloroacetic acid was reported to be carcinogenic to mouse liver. Furthermore, both trichloroacetic acid and chloral hydrate were found to be genotoxic in vivo, inducing structural and numerical chromosome abnormalities, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Crebelli
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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Bruckner JV, Davis BD, Blancato JN. Metabolism, toxicity, and carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene. Crit Rev Toxicol 1989; 20:31-50. [PMID: 2673291 DOI: 10.3109/10408448909037475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Lifetime cancer or unit risk estimates for TRI have been calculated by the EPA on the basis of metabolized dose-tumor incidence relationships. Previously, it was common practice to directly extrapolate exposure dose-tumor incidence data from laboratory animal studies to predict cancer risks in humans. Such direct species-to-species extrapolations, however, do not take into account potentially important species differences in systemic uptake, tissue distribution, metabolism, deposition at the site(s) of action, and elimination. The consideration and use of pharmacokinetic and metabolic data can significantly reduce, though not eliminate, uncertainties inherent in species-to-species, route-to-route, and high- to low-dose extrapolations. The total amount of TRI metabolized was considered in the most recent EPA Health Assessment Document for Trichloroethylene to be the effective dose (EFD) producing tumors. Exposure dose-metabolism relationships were determined from direct measurement data in inhalation and oral dosing studies in mice and rats. The magnitude of TRI metabolism in these two species closely approximated body surface area. Thus, it was assumed that the amount of TRI metabolized per square meter of surface area was equivalent among species when calculating human equivalent doses from the animal data. Direct measurement data from an inhalation study in humans were used to calculate the amount of TRI metabolized and the unit risk estimate when a person inhales 1 microgram TRI per cubic meter continuously for 24 h. The EPA Cancer Assessment Group (CAG) elected to use this risk estimate for TRI in air, since it was calculated on the basis of a human metabolized dose rather than unit risk estimates based on animal studies. The current survey of literature and ongoing research uncovered no new animal or human studies in which TRI metabolites were directly measured, which would be any more suitable for use in estimating the total metabolized dose of TRI. On the basis of information now available, it is appropriate to continue to use the total amount of TRI metabolized as the EFD producing tumors in the liver. Use of the total amount metabolized represents an important "step in the right direction" in reducing uncertainties in interspecies extrapolations of data on a chemical such as TRI. TRI is believed to be metabolically activated to a reactive intermediate(s), although the identity of the intermediate(s) is unclear. There is evidence that formation of reactive intermediate(s) and TRI hepatotoxicity are directly proportional to the overall extent of TRI metabolism.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- J V Bruckner
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, University of Georgia, Athens
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Viau C, Bernard A, De Russis R, Ouled A, Maldague P, Lauwerys R. Evaluation of the nephrotoxic potential of styrene in man and in rat. J Appl Toxicol 1987; 7:313-6. [PMID: 3316354 DOI: 10.1002/jat.2550070505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The urinary excretion of beta 2-microglobulin, retinol-binding protein and albumin was measured in 65 workers exposed to styrene at levels averaging 50 percent of the current threshold limit value (215 mg/m2) for 1-13 years (mean: 6 years). By comparison with a control group matched for age and socioeconomic status, no significant difference was observed in the urinary excretion of proteins. In rats, styrene was weakly nephrotoxic. No functional or morphological renal change could be disclosed in rats exposed to 565 mg of styrene/m3, 5 days/week for 13 weeks. The repeated i.p. injection of 1 g styrene/kg (1/5 of oral LD50) for 10 days induced only a slight tubular dysfunction as evidenced by a 5-fold increase in beta 2-microglobulinuria. Altogether, these epidemiological and experimental data suggest that the current threshold limit value for styrene (215 mg/m3) proposed by the American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists does not entail any risk of renal toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Viau
- Département de Médecine, Université Catholique de Louvain, (School of Medicine), Brussels, Belgium
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Bergman K, Albanus L. Di-(2-ethylhexyl)adipate: absorption, autoradiographic distribution and elimination in mice and rats. Food Chem Toxicol 1987; 25:309-16. [PMID: 3583157 DOI: 10.1016/0278-6915(87)90128-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Whole-body autoradiography was used to study the tissue distribution of the plasticizer di-(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA), labelled in the acid [carbonyl-14C] or alcohol [2-ethylhexyl-1-14C]moiety, after iv or ig administration to male mice and rats and pregnant mice. With both DEHA preparations, during the first 24 hr after administration high levels of radioactivity were observed particularly in the body fat, liver and kidneys (after iv and ig administration) and in the intestinal contents (after ig administration) of both species. After administration of [carbonyl-14C]DEHA, radioactivity was also registered in the adrenal cortex, corpora lutea of the ovary, bone marrow, forestomach mucosa, salivary glands and Harder's gland in both species. [2-ethylhexyl-1-14C]DEHA derived radioactivity was found in the bronchi in male mice. Radioactivity was observed in the foetal liver, intestine and bone marrow during the first 24 hr after iv or ig administration of [carbonyl-14C]DEHA to pregnant mice. There was very little accumulation of [2-ethylhexyl-1-14C]DEHA in the mouse foetus but some was found in the urinary bladder, liver and intestinal contents as well as in the amniotic fluid. In an absorption/elimination study in rats of doses of 25 microCi/kg body weight of [14C]DEHA administered ig, dissolved in corn oil or dimethylsulphoxide, blood levels of radioactivity increased somewhat faster and were two or three times higher when DMSO was the vehicle indicating poor absorption of DEHA from the corn oil solution which more accurately reflects human contact with DEHA. Little radioactivity from [carbonyl-14C]DEHA was recovered in the bile, whereas [2-ethylhexyl-1-14C]DEHA was excreted in the bile in significant amounts particularly when DMSO was the vehicle. There was evidence of enterohepatic circulation of DEHA. Radioactivity was also excreted in the urine. As shown by autoradiograms obtained 4 days after the administration of [14C]DEHA there was no retention of DEHA and/or its metabolites in the tissues of mice.
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Ghantous H, Danielsson BR, Dencker L, Gorczak J, Vesterberg O. Trichloroacetic acid accumulates in murine amniotic fluid after tri- and tetrachloroethylene inhalation. ACTA PHARMACOLOGICA ET TOXICOLOGICA 1986; 58:105-14. [PMID: 3754680 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1986.tb00078.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of trichloroethylene (Tri) and tetrachloroethylene (Tetra) and their metabolites have been studied in pregnant mice by means of whole-body autoradiography (14C-labelled Tri and Tetra) and gas chromatography, with special emphasis on possible uptake and retention in the foetoplacental unit. Volatile (non-metabolized) activity appeared at short intervals after a 10 min. or 1 hr inhalation period in foetus and amniotic fluid. Most notable, however, was a strong accumulation and retention (peak at 4 hrs) in amniotic fluid of the metabolite trichloroacetic acid (TCA) after inhalation of either of the solvents. The main metabolite of Tri, trichloroethanol (TCE) (or conjugates), did not accumulate specifically as compared to maternal plasma. TCA infused intravenously in the maternal plasma was accumulated in amniotic fluid, but less pronounced than after Tri and Tetra inhalation, indicating that some metabolism of Tri and Tetra to TCA may occur in the foetoplacental unit. The results suggest that TCA may be transported to the foetus partly paraplacentally through foetal membranes and amniotic fluid, with the possibility of foetal swallowing or absorption through the skin. Foetal urinary activity also suggests that circulation between foetus and amniotic fluid may contribute to the long-term retention in the foetoplacental unit. In the mother, after inhalation exposures, and in intraperitoneally injected newborn mice, non-extractable radioactivity was found in the respiratory tract, liver, and kidney, indicating binding to these organs through metabolism.
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Abstract
Trichloroethylene (TCE) produced bronchiolar damage when administered to mice. Administration of 2000 mg/kg caused injury in Clara cells of the bronchiolar epithelium, which was observed at 24 h following TCE treatment; increase of the dosage to 2500 mg/kg induced additionally, alterations in alveolar Type II cells of the parenchyma. Specifically, lamellar bodies were reduced in number and microvilli displayed distorted protrusions. The increase in severity of cellular injury with higher dosages of TCE coincided with increased accumulation of pulmonary calcium and lengthened anesthesia recovery times following TCE-induced anesthesia. Time-course studies conducted with 2000 mg/kg demonstrated rapid and marked reduction in pulmonary microsomal cytochrome P-450 content and aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activity. Significant decreases were observed as early as 1 h, and the levels were still depressed at 24 h following TCE treatment. Hepatic necrosis was relatively mild at the dosages of TCE examined. These results demonstrate that TCE is pneumotoxic and affects Clara and alveolar Type II cells.
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Lam HR, Tarding F, Stokholm J, Gyntelberg F. Human platelet 5-hydroxytryptamine concentration as a tool in prediction of solvent induced neurotoxic effects. ACTA PHARMACOLOGICA ET TOXICOLOGICA 1985; 56:233-8. [PMID: 4013761 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1985.tb01281.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Many organic solvents are lipophilic and concentrate in lipid rich tissues e.g. nervous tissue, where they are known to induce toxic effects in humans, especially in the central nervous system. Changes in the presynaptic neurotransmitter metabolism may play a role in these effects. The platelet is proposed as an alternative human model for this complex in the investigation of such changes, especially regarding 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT). The platelet 5-HT concentration was measured in platelets isolated from exposed persons with diagnosed neurointoxication caused by exposure to organic solvents and compared to controls. No difference in the concentration was found. Instead of using the platelet 5-HT concentration in the prediction of neurotoxic effects, the platelet 5-HT uptake rate may be an alternative parameter. A specific and sensitive double isotope derivative technique for 5-HT measurements is described. A solvent induced reduction in the number of platelets/ml platelet rich plasma was found and is discussed.
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Danielsson BR, Ghantous H, Dencker L. Accumulation in murine amniotic fluid of halothane and its metabolites. ACTA PHARMACOLOGICA ET TOXICOLOGICA 1984; 55:410-7. [PMID: 6528811 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1984.tb02003.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of radioactivity in pregnant mice was registered at 0, 4, and 24 hrs after a 10 min. period of inhalation of 14C-halothane. Autoradiographic methods were used to allow to distinguish between the distribution of volatile (non-metabolize) halothane, water-soluble metabolites, and firmly tissue-bound metabolites. While volatile radioactivity was seen predominantly at short survival intervals, e.g. in body fat, blood, brain and liver, metabolites accumulated with time. Peak values occurred at 4 hrs in most organs (measured with liquid scintillation as well). The most remarkable findings were the high concentrations of radioactivity in amniotic fluid (and the ocular fluids of adults) with peak values at 4 hrs and rather high concentrations still prevailing at 24 hrs after inhalation. It is assumed that this activity represents only partly volaile halothane and mostly non-volatile metabolites. High activity of metabolites was seen in the neuroepithelium of the embryo in early gestation. Firmly tissue-bound metabolites, still remaining after washing the tissues with trichloroacetic acid and organic solvents, were found in the nasal mucosa, trachea and bronchial tree and in (presumably centrilobular) zones of the liver of adults after inhalation and 5-day old mice after intraperitoneal injection, indicating the formation of reactive metabolites in these organs. Firmly tissue-bound activity was not observed in the corresponding foetal organs.
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Danielsson BR, Bergman K, d'Argy R. Tissue disposition of carbon disulfide. II. Whole-body autoradiography of 35S- and 14C-labelled carbon disulfide in pregnant mice. ACTA PHARMACOLOGICA ET TOXICOLOGICA 1984; 54:233-40. [PMID: 6720320 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1984.tb01923.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Occupational exposure to carbon disulfide (CS2) has been associated with an increased rate of spontaneous abortions. Animal experiments have shown that CS2 is embryotoxic and teratogenic. In the present study, the embryonal and foetal distribution of CS2 and its metabolites was studied after administration of 35S- or 14C-labelled CS2 to pregnant mice in different stages of gestation. CS2 and its metabolites passed the placenta at all stages of gestation. High levels of metabolites of CS2 were registered in the embryonic neuroepithelium. In mid and late gestation CS2 itself accumulated in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of the brain. 14C-labelled metabolites of CS2 showed affinity for bone and were retained in the liver even at long survival times (24 hours). These localizations may be of significance for some of the reported teratogenic effects of CS2, such as hydrocephalus, ossification defects and foetal liver injury, and support the idea that CS2 and/or its metabolites are embryotoxic and teratogenic by acting directly on embryonal and foetal structures.
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Bergman K, Danielsson BR, d'Argy R. Tissue disposition of carbon disulfide: I. Whole-body autoradiography of 35S- and 14C-labelled carbon disulfide in adult male mice. ACTA PHARMACOLOGICA ET TOXICOLOGICA 1984; 54:141-50. [PMID: 6711322 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1984.tb01908.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Occupational exposure to carbon disulfide (CS2) is associated with several adverse effects such as neurotoxicity, atherosclerosis, liver injury and endocrinal disturbances. In the present study, the distribution of CS2 and its metabolites after inhalation of 35S- or 14C-labelled CS2 was studied in adult male mice with whole-body autoradiography. CS2 itself was registered in body fat and in well-perfused tissues at survival times up to 2 hours. Very little CS2 was taken up by the brain. The distribution patterns of CS2 metabolites were very different after administration of C35S2 or 14CS2. 35S-Labelled metabolites were initially concentrated in the liver and kidney, but were rapidly eliminated from the body. There was evidence of an extensive metabolic incorporation of sulfur split off from CS2 during its biotransformation. 14C-Labelled metabolites were likewise concentrated in the liver and kidney, but were also observed in large amounts in the nasal mucosa, bronchi, bone, pancreas, thyroid, adrenal cortex and testis. A marked retention of non-extractable 14C-labelled metabolites was seen in the liver and thyroid. The results point to several sites of specific CS2-induced toxicity due to the tissue disposition of metabolites of CS2.
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