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Battista VD, Hey-Hawkins E. Development of Prodrugs for Treatment of Parkinson's Disease: New Inorganic Scaffolds for Blood-Brain Barrier Permeation. J Pharm Sci 2022; 111:1262-1279. [PMID: 35182542 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2022.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) has not been consistently modified for more than 60 years. L-DOPA, the blood-brain barrier permeable precursor prodrug of dopamine, is to date the only effective therapy on the market. However, it is well known that prolonged treatment with L-DOPA leads to several side effects, which may affect the patient's life expectancy (i.e., the wearing-off phenomenon, on-off fluctuations, and dyskinesia). For this reason, modifications, and supplements to L-DOPA treatment have been and are being studied, which, however, have not yet resulted in a valid alternative to the cornerstone drug. This review aims to summarize the main formulations currently in use for PD treatment, explaining advantages and disadvantages for each class. The attention will be focused on the promising prodrug concept, aimed at finding a suitable L-DOPA substitute with improved pharmacokinetic behavior. In this respect, new potential candidates which show interesting properties for the intended scope, the so-called dicarba-closo-dodecaboranes(12) (carboranes), will be discussed. Carboranes are inorganic molecular icosahedral boron-carbon clusters with 12 vertices and 20 deltahedral faces. They have been extensively studied for applications in medicine as potential pharmacophores, reagents in boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) and radiotherapy. Here, we discuss them as inorganic scaffolds for dopamine delivery at the central nervous system (CNS) level.
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Key Words
- %F, Oral Bioavailability
- 5-HTP, L-5-Hydroxy-Tryptophan
- AADC, Aromatic L-Amino Acid Decarboxylase
- AGPs, Arabinogalactan Proteins
- AUC, Area Under the Plasma Concentration Curve
- Abbreviations
- BBB, Blood–Brain Barrier
- BNCT, Boron Neutron Capture Therapy
- CNS, Central Nervous System
- COMT, Catechol-O-Methyltransferase
- DBS, Deep Brain Stimulation
- DDC, Dopamine Decarboxylase
- DMSO, Dimethylsulfoxide
- FAD, Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
- FDA, Food and Drug Administration
- GPCRs, G-Protein-Coupled Receptors
- HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus
- HSA, Human Serum Albumin
- ICT, Intramolecular Charge Transfer
- IPG, Implanted Pulse Generator
- IUPAC, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
- IV, Intravenous Injection
- LDEE, L-DOPA Ethyl Ester
- LNAA, Large Neutral Amino Acid transport system
- MAO-A/B, Monoamine Oxidase-A/B
- MPO, Multiparameter Optimization
- Mw, Molecular Weight
- NMDAR, N-Methyl D-Aspartate Receptor
- P, Partition Coefficient
- PAMPA, Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay
- PD, Parkinson's Disease
- PLP, Pyridoxal Phosphate
- PNS, Peripheral Nervous System
- Parkinson's disease, Dopamine, Blood–brain barrier, Permeability, Bioavailability, L-DOPA, Prodrugs, Inorganic scaffold, Icosahedral carborane
- SAM, S-Adenosyl L-Methionine
- STN, Subthalamic Nucleus
- TBP, Tetrahydrobiopterin
- UPDRS, Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale
- VTA, Ventral Tegmental Are
- hBMECs, human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Di Battista
- Leipzig University, Faculty of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Johannisallee 29, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Evamarie Hey-Hawkins
- Leipzig University, Faculty of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Johannisallee 29, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Elhesaisy N, Swidan S. Trazodone Loaded Lipid Core Poly (ε-caprolactone) Nanocapsules: Development, Characterization and in Vivo Antidepressant Effect Evaluation. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1964. [PMID: 32029776 PMCID: PMC7005163 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58803-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Trazodone hydrochloride (TRH) is a lipophilic drug which is used effectively as an antidepressant. Its poor solubility and short half-life represent an obstacle for its successful use. Nanocapsules with biodegradable polymeric shell are successful drug delivery systems for controlling the release of drugs. To enhance the entrapment of lipophilic drugs, oils can be added forming a lipophilic core in which the drug is more soluble. The aim of this study was to enhance the efficacy of TRH and prolong its action by formulating it into lipid core polymeric shell nanocapsules. Nanocapules were prepared using nanoprecipitation technique. All prepared formulations were in nano size range and negatively charged. The TRH entrapment efficiency (EE%) in lipid core nanocapsules was up to 74.8 ± 0.5% when using Labrafac lipophile as a lipid core compared to only 55.7 ± 0.9% in lipid free polymeric nanospheres. Controlled TRH release was achieved for all prepared formulations. Forced swim test results indicated the significant enhancement of antidepressant effect of the selected TRH loaded Labrafac lipophile core nanocapsules formulation compared to control and TRH dispersion in phosphate buffer. It is concluded that lipid core nanocapsules is a promising carrier for the enhancement of TRH efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nahla Elhesaisy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The British University in Egypt, El-Sherouk City, Cairo, 11837, Egypt
| | - Shady Swidan
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The British University in Egypt, El-Sherouk City, Cairo, 11837, Egypt.
- The Center for Drug Research and Development (CDRD), The British University in Egypt, El-Sherouk city, Cairo, 11837, Egypt.
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Mannino G, Caradonna F, Cruciata I, Lauria A, Perrone A, Gentile C. Melatonin reduces inflammatory response in human intestinal epithelial cells stimulated by interleukin-1β. J Pineal Res 2019; 67:e12598. [PMID: 31349378 DOI: 10.1111/jpi.12598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Melatonin is the main secretory product of the pineal gland, and it is involved in the regulation of periodic events. A melatonin production independent of the photoperiod is typical of the gut. However, the local physiological role of melatonin at the intestinal tract is poorly characterized. In this study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory activities of melatonin in an in vitro model of inflamed intestinal epithelium. To this purpose, we assessed different parameters usually associated with intestinal inflammation using IL-1β-stimulated Caco-2 cells. Differentiated monolayers of Caco-2 cells were preincubated with melatonin (1 nmol/L-50 μmol/L) and then exposed to IL-1β. After each treatment, different inflammatory mediators, DNA-breakage, and global DNA methylation status were assayed. To evaluate the involvement of melatonin membrane receptors, we also exposed differentiated monolayers to melatonin in the presence of luzindole, a MT1 and MT2 antagonist. Our results showed that melatonin, at concentrations similar to those obtained in the lumen gut after ingestion of dietary supplements for the treatment of sleep disorders, was able to attenuate the inflammatory response induced by IL-1β. Anti-inflammatory effects were expressed as both a decrease of the levels of inflammatory mediators, including IL-6, IL-8, COX-2, and NO, and a reduced increase in paracellular permeability. Moreover, the protection was associated with a reduced NF-κB activation and a prevention of DNA demethylation. Conversely, luzindole did not reverse the melatonin inhibition of stimulated-IL-6 release. In conclusion, our findings suggest that melatonin, through a local action, can modulate inflammatory processes at the intestinal level, offering new opportunities for a multimodal management of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Mannino
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Fabio Caradonna
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Ilenia Cruciata
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonino Lauria
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Anna Perrone
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Carla Gentile
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
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Chaturvedi S, Rashid M, Malik MY, Agarwal A, Singh SK, Gayen JR, Wahajuddin M. Neuropharmacokinetics: a bridging tool between CNS drug development and therapeutic outcome. Drug Discov Today 2019; 24:1166-1175. [PMID: 30898661 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2019.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
WHO classified neurological disorders to be among 6.3% of the global disease burden. Among the most central aspects of CNS drug development is the ability of novel molecules to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach the target site over a desired time period for therapeutic action. Based on various aspects, brain pharmacokinetics is considered to be one of the foremost perspectives for the higher attrition rate of CNS biologics. Although drug traits are important, the BBB and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier together with transporters become the mechanistic approach behind CNS drug delivery. The present review emphasizes neuropharmacokinetic parameters, their importance, an assessment approach and the vast effect of transporters to brain drug distribution for CNS drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swati Chaturvedi
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, New Delhi, India; Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Mamunur Rashid
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Mohd Yaseen Malik
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, New Delhi, India; Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Arun Agarwal
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, New Delhi, India; Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sandeep K Singh
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, New Delhi, India; Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Jiaur R Gayen
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, New Delhi, India; Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Muhammad Wahajuddin
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, New Delhi, India; Pharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics Division, CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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Haddad F, Sawalha M, Khawaja Y, Najjar A, Karaman R. Dopamine and Levodopa Prodrugs for the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease. Molecules 2017; 23:E40. [PMID: 29295587 PMCID: PMC5943940 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Parkinson's disease is an aggressive and progressive neurodegenerative disorder that depletes dopamine (DA) in the central nervous system. Dopamine replacement therapy, mainly through actual dopamine and its original prodrug l-dopa (LD), faces many challenges such as poor blood brain barrier penetration and decreased response to therapy with time. Methods: The prodrugs described herein are ester, amide, dimeric amide, carrier-mediated, peptide transport-mediated, cyclic, chemical delivery systems and enzyme-models prodrugs designed and made by chemical means, and their bioavailability was studied in animals. Results: A promising ester prodrug for intranasal delivery has been developed. LD methyl ester is currently in Phase III clinical trials. A series of amide prodrugs were synthesized with better stability than ester prodrugs. Both amide and dimeric amide prodrugs offer enhanced blood brain barrier (BBB) penetration and better pharmacokinetics. Attaching LD to sugars has been used to exploit glucose transport mechanisms into the brain. Conclusions: Till now, no DA prodrug has reached the pharmaceutical market, nevertheless, the future of utilizing prodrugs for the treatment of PD seems to be bright. For instance, LD ester prodrugs have demonstrated an adequate intranasal delivery of LD, thus enabling the absorption of therapeutic agents to the brain. Most of the amide, cyclic, peptidyl or chemical delivery systems of DA prodrugs demonstrated enhanced pharmacokinetic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatma Haddad
- Department of Bioorganic & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem P.O. Box 20002, Palestine.
| | - Maryam Sawalha
- Department of Bioorganic & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem P.O. Box 20002, Palestine.
| | - Yahya Khawaja
- Department of Bioorganic & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem P.O. Box 20002, Palestine.
| | - Anas Najjar
- Department of Bioorganic & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem P.O. Box 20002, Palestine.
| | - Rafik Karaman
- Department of Bioorganic & Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Quds University, Jerusalem P.O. Box 20002, Palestine.
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Sutera FM, Giannola LI, Murgia D, De Caro V. Assessment of in vivo organ-uptake and in silico prediction of CYP mediated metabolism of DA-Phen, a new dopaminergic agent. Comput Biol Chem 2017; 71:63-69. [PMID: 28985485 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2017.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The drug development process strives to predict metabolic fate of a drug candidate, together with its uptake in major organs, whether they act as target, deposit or metabolism sites, to the aim of establish a relationship between the pharmacodynamics and the pharmacokinetics and highlight the potential toxicity of the drug candidate. The present study was aimed at evaluating the in vivo uptake of 2-Amino-N-[2-(3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl)-ethyl]-3-phenyl-propionamide (DA-Phen) - a new dopaminergic neurotransmission modulator, in target and non-target organs of animal subjects and integrating these data with SMARTCyp results, an in silico method that predicts the sites of cytochrome P450-mediated metabolism of drug-like molecules. Wistar rats, subjected to two different behavioural studies in which DA-Phen was intraperitoneally administrated at a dose equal to 0.03mmol/kg, were sacrificed after the experimental protocols and their major organs were analysed to quantify the drug uptake. The data obtained were integrated with in silico prediction of potential metabolites of DA-Phen using the SmartCYP predictive tool. DA-Phen reached quantitatively the Central Nervous System and the results showed that the amide bond of the DA-Phen is scarcely hydrolysed as it was found intact in analyzed organs. As a consequence, it is possible to assume that DA-Phen acts as dopaminergic modulator per se and not as a Dopamine prodrug, thus avoiding peripheral release and toxic side effects due to the endogenous neurotransmitter. Furthermore the identification of potential metabolites related to biotransformation of the drug candidate leads to a more careful evaluation of the appropriate route of administration for future intended therapeutic aims and potential translation into clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Maria Sutera
- SiSaf Ltd, Innovation Centre, Northern Ireland Science Park, Queen's Island, Belfast, BT3 9DT, UK
| | - Libero Italo Giannola
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Denise Murgia
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Viviana De Caro
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy.
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Tutone M, Perricone U, Almerico AM. Conf-VLKA: A structure-based revisitation of the Virtual Lock-and-key Approach. J Mol Graph Model 2016; 71:50-57. [PMID: 27842227 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
In a previous work, we developed the in house Virtual Lock-and-Key Approach (VLKA) in order to evaluate target assignment starting from molecular descriptors calculated on known inhibitors used as an information source. This protocol was able to predict the correct biological target for the whole dataset with a good degree of reliability (80%), and proved experimentally, which was useful for the target fishing of unknown compounds. In this paper, we tried to remodel the previous in house developed VLKA in a more sophisticated one in order to evaluate the influence of 3D conformation of ligands on the accuracy of the prediction. We applied the same previous algorithm of scoring and ranking but, this time, combining it with a structure-based approach as docking. For this reason, we retrieved from the RCSB Protein Data Bank (PDB), the available 3D structures of the biological targets included into the previous work, and we used them to calculate poses of the 7352 dataset compounds in the VLKA biological targets. First, docking protocol has been used to retrieve docking scores, then, from the docked poses of each molecule, 3D-descriptors were calculated (Conf-VLKA), While the use of the simple docking scores proved to be inadequate to improve compounds classification, the Conf-VLKA showed some interesting variations compared to the original VLKA, especially for targets whose ligands present a high number of rotamers. This work represent a first preliminary study to be completed using other techniques such as induced fit docking or molecular dynamics structure clustering to take into account the protein side chains adaptation to ligands structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Tutone
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 28, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Ugo Perricone
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 28, Palermo, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Almerico
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 28, Palermo, Italy
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Tutone M, Chinnici A, Almerico AM, Perricone U, Sutera FM, De Caro V. Design, synthesis and preliminary evaluation of dopamine-amino acid conjugates as potential D1 dopaminergic modulators. Eur J Med Chem 2016; 124:435-444. [PMID: 27597419 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.08.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The dopamine-amino acid conjugate DA-Phen was firstly designed to obtain a useful prodrug for the therapy of Parkinson's disease, but experimental evidence shows that it effectively interacts with D1 dopamine receptors (D1DRs), leading to an enhancement in cognitive flexibility and to the development of adaptive strategies in aversive mazes, together with a decrease in despair-like behavior. In this paper, homology modelling, molecular dynamics, and site mapping of D1 receptor were carried out with the aim of further performing docking studies on other dopamine conjugates compared with D1 agonists, in the attempt to identify new compounds with potential dopaminergic activity. Two new conjugates (DA-Trp 2C, and DA-Leu 3C) have been identified as the most promising candidates, and consequently synthesized. Preliminary evaluation in terms of distribution coefficient (DpH7.4), stability in rat brain homogenate, and in human plasma confirmed that DA-Trp (2C), and DA-Leu (3C) could be considered as very valuable candidates for further in vivo studies as new dopaminergic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Tutone
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy.
| | - Aurora Chinnici
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy; Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Via Manzoni 113, 20089, Rozzano, MI, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Almerico
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Ugo Perricone
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy
| | - Flavia Maria Sutera
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy; SiSaf Ltd, Innovation Centre, Northern Ireland Science Park, Queen's Island, Belfast, BT3 9DT, UK
| | - Viviana De Caro
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 32, 90123, Palermo, Italy
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Sutera FM, De Caro V, Giannola LI. Small endogenous molecules as moiety to improve targeting of CNS drugs. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2016; 14:93-107. [DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2016.1208651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Maria Sutera
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, via Archirafi 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Viviana De Caro
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, via Archirafi 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Libero Italo Giannola
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), University of Palermo, via Archirafi 32, 90123 Palermo, Italy
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