Interaction according to urinary sodium excretion level on the association between ATP2B1 rs17249754 and incident hypertension: the Korean genome epidemiology study

Single nucleotide polymorphism-based biomarker in primary hypertension

Primary hypertension is a multiplex and multifactorial disease influenced by various strong components including genetics. Extensive research such as Genome-wide association studies and candidate gene studies have revealed various single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) related to hypertension, providing insights into the genetic basis of the condition. This review summarizes the current status of SNP research in primary hypertension, including examples of hypertension-related SNPs, their location, function, and frequency in different populations. The potential clinical implications of SNP research for primary hypertension management are also discussed, including disease risk prediction, personalized medicine, mechanistic understanding, and lifestyle modifications. Furthermore, this review highlights emerging technologies and methodologies that have the potential to revolutionize the vast understanding of the basis of genetics in primary hypertension. Gene editing holds the potential to target and correct any kind of genetic mutations that contribute to the development of hypertension or modify genes involved in blood pressure regulation to prevent or treat the condition. Advances in computational biology and machine learning enable researchers to analyze large datasets and identify complex genetic interactions contributing to hypertension risk. In conclusion, SNP research in primary hypertension is rapidly evolving with emerging technologies and methodologies that have the potential to transform the knowledge about genetic basis related to the condition. These advances hold promise for personalized prevention and treatment strategies tailored to an individual's genetic profile ultimately improving patient outcomes and reducing healthcare costs.

ATP2B1 gene polymorphisms associated with resistant hypertension in the Japanese population

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) of ATP2B1 gene are associated with essential hypertension but their association with resistant hypertension (RHT) remains unexplored. The authors examined the relationship between ATP2B1 SNPs and RHT by genotyping 12 SNPs in ATP2B1 gene of 1124 Japanese individuals with lifestyle-related diseases. Patients with RHT had inadequate blood pressure (BP) control using three antihypertensive drugs or used ≥4 antihypertensive drugs. Patients with controlled hypertension had BP controlled using ≤3 antihypertensive drugs. The association between each SNP and RHT was analyzed by logistic regression. The final cohort had 888 (79.0%) and 43 (3.8%) patients with controlled hypertension and RHT, respectively. Compared with patients homozygous for the minor allele of each SNP in ATP2B1, a significantly higher number of patients carrying the major allele at 10 SNPs exhibited RHT (most significant at rs1401982: 5.8% vs. 0.8%, p = .014; least significant at rs11105378: 5.7% vs. 0.9%, p = .035; most nonsignificant at rs12817819: 5.1% vs. 10%, p = .413). After multivariate adjustment for age, sex, systolic BP, and other confounders, the association remained significant for rs2681472 and rs1401982 (OR: 7.60, p < .05 and OR: 7.62, p = .049, respectively). Additionally, rs2681472 and rs1401982 were in linkage disequilibrium with rs11105378. This study identified two ATP2B1 SNPs associated with RHT in the Japanese population. rs1401982 was most closely associated with RHT, and major allele carriers of rs1401982 required significantly more antihypertensive medications. Analysis of ATP2B1 SNPs in patients with hypertension can help in early prediction of RHT and identification of high-risk patients who are more likely to require more antihypertensive medications.

Sodium Intake and Risk of Hypertension: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Observational Cohort Studies

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

To assess the relationship between sodium intake and hypertension risk in cohort studies, based on a systematic review up to January 21, 2022, that also employed a dose-response meta-analysis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Dose-response analysis of available cohort studies (n = 11), using a dietary intake or urinary sodium excretion of 2 g/day as the reference category, showed an excess risk starting at 3 g/day. However, we found a linear relationship across the entire range of sodium exposure in an analysis restricted to studies that used 24 h urinary sodium excretion information and had a low risk of bias. This review confirms prior findings based on experimental studies and identified an almost linear relationship between sodium intake/excretion and hypertension risk in cohort studies, reinforcing the validity of recommendations to prevent cardiovascular disease through the reduction of sodium intake in both normotensive and hypertensive adults.

CYP17A1-ATP2B1 SNPs and Gene-Gene and Gene-Environment Interactions on Essential Hypertension

Background: The association between the CYP17A1 and ATP2B1 SNPs and essential hypertension (referred to as hypertension) is far from being consistent. In addition to the heterogeneity of hypertension resulting in inconsistent results, gene–gene and gene–environment interactions may play a major role in the pathogenesis of hypertension rather than a single gene or environmental factor.

Methods: A case–control study consisting of 1,652 individuals (hypertension, 816; control, 836) was conducted in Maonan ethnic minority of China. Genotyping of the four SNPs was performed by the next-generation sequencing technology.

Results: The frequencies of minor alleles and genotypes of four SNPs were different between the two groups (p < 0.001). According to genetic dominance model analysis, three (rs1004467, rs11191548, and rs17249754) SNPs and two haplotypes (CYP17A1 rs1004467G-rs11191548C and ATP2B1 rs1401982G-rs17249754A) were negatively correlated, whereas rs1401982 SNP and the other two haplotypes (CYP17A1 rs1004467A-rs11191548T and ATP2B1 rs1401982A-rs17249754G) were positively associated with hypertension risk (p ≤ 0.002 for all). Two best significant two-locus models were screened out by GMDR software involving SNP–environment (rs11191548 and BMI ≥ 24 kg/m²) and haplotype–environment (CYP17A1 rs1004467G-rs11191548C and BMI ≥ 24 kg/m²) interactions (p ≤ 0.01). The subjects carrying some genotypes increased the hypertension risk.

Conclusions: Our outcomes implied that the rs1004467, rs11191548, and rs17249754 SNPs and CYP17A1 rs1004467G-rs11191548C and ATP2B1 rs1401982G-rs17249754A haplotypes have protective effects, whereas the rs1401982 SNP and CYP17A1 rs1004467A-rs11191548T and ATP2B1 rs1401982A-rs17249754G haplotypes showed adverse effect on the prevalence of hypertension. Several SNP–environment interactions were also detected.

Identifying Interactions between Dietary Sodium, Potassium, Sodium-Potassium Ratios, and FGF5 rs16998073 Variants and Their Associated Risk for Hypertension in Korean Adults

Hypertension is affected by both genetic and dietary factors. This study aimed to examine the interaction between dietary sodium/potassium intake, sodium–potassium ratios, and FGF5 rs16998073 and link these with increased risk for developing hypertension. Using data from the Health Examinee (HEXA) Study of the Korean Genome and Epidemiologic Study (KoGES), we were able to identify a total of 17,736 middle-aged Korean adults who could be included in our genome-wide association study (GWAS) to confirm any associations between hypertension and the FGF5 rs16998073 variant. GWAS analysis revealed that the FGF5 rs16698073 variant demonstrated the strongest association with hypertension in this population. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between dietary intake of sodium, potassium, and sodium–potassium ratios and the FGF5 rs16998073 genotypes (AA, AT, TT) and any increased risk of hypertension. Carriers with at least one minor T allele for FGF5 rs16998073 were shown to be at significantly higher risk for developing hypertension. Male TT carriers with a daily sodium intake ≥2000 mg also demonstrated an increased risk for developing hypertension compared to the male AA carriers with daily sodium intake <2000 mg (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.41, 95% confidence intervals (CIs) = 1.84–3.15, p-interaction < 0.0001). Female AA carriers with a daily potassium intake ≥3500 mg showed a reduced risk for hypertension when compared to female AA carriers with a daily potassium intake <3500 mg (AOR = 0.75. 95% CIs = 0.58–0.95, p-interaction < 0.0001). Male TT carriers in the mid-tertile for sodium–potassium ratio values showed the highest odds ratio for hypertension when compared to male AA carriers in the lowest-tertile for sodium–potassium ratio values (AOR = 3.03, 95% CIs = 2.14–4.29, p-interaction < 0.0001). This study confirmed that FGF5 rs16998073 variants do place their carriers (men and women) at increased risk for developing hypertension. In addition, we showed that high daily intake of sodium exerted a synergistic effect for hypertension when combined with FGF5 rs16998073 variants in both genders and that dietary sodium, potassium, and sodium–potassium ratios all interact with FGF5 rs16998073 and alter the risk of developing hypertension in carriers of either gender among Koreans.

Genetics of Human Primary Hypertension: Focus on Hormonal Mechanisms

Increasingly, primary hypertension is being considered a syndrome and not a disease, with the individual causes (diseases) having a common sign-an elevated blood pressure. To determine these causes, genetic tools are increasingly employed. This review identified 62 proposed genes. However, only 21 of them met our inclusion criteria: (i) primary hypertension, (ii) two or more supporting cohorts from different publications or within a single publication or one supporting cohort with a confirmatory genetically modified animal study, and (iii) 600 or more subjects in the primary cohort; when including our exclusion criteria: (i) meta-analyses or reviews, (ii) secondary and monogenic hypertension, (iii) only hypertensive complications, (iv) genes related to blood pressure but not hypertension per se, (v) nonsupporting studies more common than supporting ones, and (vi) studies that did not perform a Bonferroni or similar multiassessment correction. These 21 genes were organized in a four-tiered structure: distant phenotype (hypertension); intermediate phenotype [salt-sensitive (18) or salt-resistant (0)]; subintermediate phenotypes under salt-sensitive hypertension [normal renin (4), low renin (8), and unclassified renin (6)]; and proximate phenotypes (specific genetically driven hypertensive subgroup). Many proximate hypertensive phenotypes had a substantial endocrine component. In conclusion, primary hypertension is a syndrome; many proposed genes are likely to be false positives; and deep phenotyping will be required to determine the utility of genetics in the treatment of hypertension. However, to date, the positive genes are associated with nearly 50% of primary hypertensives, suggesting that in the near term precise, mechanistically driven treatment and prevention strategies for the specific primary hypertension subgroups are feasible.