Self-emulsifying drug delivery system and the applications in herbal drugs

Solubility enhancement of fexofenadine using self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system for improved biomimetic attributes

BACKGROUND

Fexofenadine is a poorly water-soluble drug, which limit its bioavailability and ultimately therapeutic efficacy. Liquid self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system (L-SNEDDs) is an approach that can enhance the solubility of fexofenadine by increasing its surface area and reducing the particle size, which increases the rate and extent of drug dissolution.

METHOD

In this investigation, L-SNEDDs of fexofenadine was made up using surfactants and co-surfactant. The SNEDDS formulation was optimized using a pseudo-ternary phase diagram and characterized.

RESULTS

The optimized L-SNEDDS incorporated fexofenadine were thermodynamically stable and showed mean droplet size and zeta potential of 155nm and -18mV, respectively unaffected by the media pH. In addition, the viscosity, and refractive index were observed 18.4 and 1.49 cps, respectively for optimized L-SNEDDS fortified fexofenadine. The results of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed an insignificant interaction between the fexofenadine and excipients. A drug loading efficiency of 94.20% resulted with a complete in vitro drug release in 2h, compared with the pure drug, which demonstrate significant improvement in the efficacy. Moreover, these results signify that on further in vivo assessment L-SNEDDS fortified fexofenadine can indicate improvement in pharmacokinetic and clinical outcome.

CONCLUSION

Thus, the investigation revealed that, the L-SNEDDs incorporated fexofenadine was most effective with a mixture of surfactant and co-surfactant with improved solubility intend to relieve pain associated with inflammation with single-dose oral administration.

Preparation and Evaluation of a Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Improving the Solubility and Permeability of Ticagrelor

Ticagrelor (TCG) is a BCS class IV antiplatelet drug used to prevent platelet aggregation in patients with acute coronary syndrome, having poor solubility and permeability. The goal of this study was to develop a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) of TCG to improve its solubility and permeability. The excipients were selected based on the maximum solubility of TCG and observed by UV spectrophotometer. Different combinations of oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant (1:1, 2:1, and 3:1) were used to prepare TCG-SNEDDS formulations, and pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were plotted. The nanoemulsion region was observed. Clove oil (10-20%), Tween-80 (45-70%), and PEG-400 (20-45%) were used as an oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant, respectively. The selected formulations (F1, F2, F3, F4, F5, and F6) were analyzed for ζ potential, polydispersity index (PDI), ζ size, self-emulsification test, cloud point determination, thermodynamic studies, entrapment efficiency, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), in vitro dissolution, ex vivo permeation, and pharmacodynamic study. The TCG-SNEDDS formulations exhibited ζ potential from -9.92 to -6.23 mV, a ζ average of 11.85-260.4 nm, and good PDI. The in vitro drug release in phosphate buffer pH 6.8 from selected TCG-SNEDDS F4 was about 98.45%, and F6 was about 97.86%, displaying improved dissolution of TCG in 0.1 N HCl and phosphate buffer pH 6.8, in comparison to 28.05% of pure TCG suspension after 12 h. While the in vitro drug release in 0.1 N HCl from F4 was about 62.03%, F6 was about 73.57%, which is higher than 10.35% of the pure TCG suspension. In ex vivo permeability studies, F4 also exhibited an improved apparent permeability of 2.7 × 10-6versus 0.6708 × 10-6 cm2/s of pure drug suspension. The pharmacodynamic study in rabbits demonstrated enhanced antiplatelet activity from TCG-SNEDDS F4 compared to that from pure TCG suspension. These outcomes imply that the TCG-SNEDDS may serve as an effective means of enhancing TCG's antiplatelet activity by improving the solubility and permeability of TCG.

Optimization and characterization of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system of iloperidone using box-behnken design and desirability function

PURPOSE

Iloperidone (IP) is an antipsychotic drug which belongs to Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) II exhibiting poor aqueous solubility. The current investigation explores the possibility of enhancement of solubility and dissolution characteristics of IP by formulation of liquid self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system (L-SNEDDS) utilizing Box-Behnken Design (BBD) and desirability function.

METHODS

The oils, surfactants and co-surfactants used in the study were selected based on solubility of the drug and their emulsification ability. Optimization of the formulation was performed using BBD by employing four response variables such as globule size (nm), percentage transmittance (%), self-emulsification time (sec) and percent drug released in 15min. 2D contour plots and 3D response surface plots were constructed using Design Expert software.

RESULTS

The developed optimal L-SNEDDS of IP through BBD approach resulted in improvement of solubility and dissolution rate as compared with the pure drug. Based on desirability function, optimized formulation was prepared and was assessed for response variables (globule size, percentage transmittance, self-emulsification time and percent drug dissolved in 15min). The characterization studies revealed droplet size to be 21.80±2.41nm, 99.584±0.65% transmittance, 24.43±2.12sec emulsification time and 95.31±1.57% cumulative drug release in 15min.

CONCLUSION

The results conclude the potentiality of prepared L-SNEDDS in improving solubility and dissolution rate of IP.

Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) of anti-cancer drugs: a multifaceted nanoplatform for the enhancement of oral bioavailability

OBJECTIVE

A significant problem faced by the health care industry today is that though there are numerous drugs available to tackle diseases like cancer, their intrinsic properties make it difficult to be delivered to patients in a feasible manner. One of the key players that have helped researchers overcome poor solubility and permeability of drugs is Nanotechnology, this article further iterates on the same.

SIGNIFICANCE

Nanotechnology is used as an umbrella term in pharmaceutics and describes under it multiple technologies. Upcoming nanotechnology is a Self Nanoemulsifying System which is considered to be a futuristic delivery system both due to its scientific simplicity and relative ease of patient delivery.

METHODS

Self-Nano Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems (SNEDDS) are homogenous lipidic concoctions containing the drug solubilized in the oil phase and surfactants. The choice of components depends on the physicochemical properties of the drugs, the solubilization capability of oils and the physiological fate of the drug. The article contains further details of various methodologies that have been adopted by scientists to formulate and optimize such systems in order to make anticancer drugs orally deliverable.

RESULTS

The results that have been generated by scientists across the globe have been summarized in the article and all of the data supports the claim that SNEDDS significantly enhance the solubility and bioavailability of hydrophobic anticancer drugs.

CONCLUSIONS

This article mainly provides the application of SNEDDS in cancer therapy and concludes to provide a step for the oral administration of several BCS class II and IV anticancer drugs.

Adapting Clofazimine for Treatment of Cutaneous Tuberculosis by Using Self-Double-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems

Although chemotherapeutic treatment regimens are currently available, and considerable effort has been lavished on the development of new drugs for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB), the disease remains deeply intractable and widespread. This is due not only to the nature of the life cycle and extraordinarily disseminated habitat of the causative pathogen, principally Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), in humans and the multi-drug resistance of Mtb to current drugs, but especially also to the difficulty of enabling universal treatment of individuals, immunocompromised or otherwise, in widely differing socio-economic environments. For the purpose of globally eliminating TB by 2035, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the "End-TB" initiative by employing interventions focusing on high impact, integrated and patient-centered approaches, such as individualized therapy. However, the extraordinary shortfall in stipulated aims, for example in actual treatment and in TB preventative treatments during the period 2018-2022, latterly and greatly exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, means that even greater pressure is now placed on enhancing our scientific understanding of the disease, repurposing or repositioning old drugs and developing new drugs as well as evolving innovative treatment methods. In the specific context of multidrug resistant Mtb, it is furthermore noted that the incidence of extra-pulmonary TB (EPTB) has significantly increased. This review focusses on the potential of utilizing self-double-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SDEDDSs) as topical drug delivery systems for the dermal route of administration to aid in treatment of cutaneous TB (CTB) and other mycobacterial infections as a prelude to evaluating related systems for more effective treatment of CTB and other mycobacterial infections at large. As a starting point, we consider here the possibility of adapting the highly lipophilic riminophenazine clofazimine, with its potential for treatment of multi-drug resistant TB, for this purpose. Additionally, recently reported synergism achieved by adding clofazimine to first-line TB regimens signifies the need to consider clofazimine. Thus, the biological effects and pharmacology of clofazimine are reviewed. The potential of plant-based oils acting as emulsifiers, skin penetration enhancers as well as these materials behaving as anti-microbial components for transporting the incorporated drug are also discussed.

Formulation, Characterization and Permeability Studies of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) Containing Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS)

Fenugreek is used as a spice and a traditional herbal medicine for a variety of purposes, given its antidiabetic and antioxidant effects. Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) of herbal drugs are targets of extensive research aiming to increase bioavailability and stability. The study’s objective was to formulate SEDDS containing Trigonella foenum-graecum extract to improve the stability of herbal extract and to increase their permeability through a Caco-2 monolayer. A characterized fenugreek dry extract was used for the formulations, while the SEDDS properties were examined by particle size analysis and zeta potential measurements. Permeability assays were carried out on Caco-2 cell monolayers, the integrity of which was monitored by follow-up trans-epithelial electric resistance measurements (TEER). Cytocompatibility was tested by the MTT method, and an indirect dissolution test was performed, using DPPH antioxidant reagent. Two different SEDDS compositions were formulated from a standardized fenugreek dry extract at either the micro- or the nanoemulsion scale with sufficient stability, enhanced bioavailability of the compounds, and sustained release from HPMC capsules. Based on our results, a modern, non-toxic, cytocompatible fenugreek SEDDS formulation with high antioxidant capacity was developed in order to improve the permeability and bioavailability of all components.

Multi-strategic approaches for enhancing active transportation using self-emulsifying drug delivery system

Oral delivery is the most desired route of drug administration and it can be more beneficial for patients suffering from chronic diseases wherein frequent parenteral administration of proteins such as insulin and calcitonin is required. The BCS class II drugs show low aqueous solubility and high permeability whereas BCS class IV drugs suffer from low aqueous solubility and low permeability. Additionally, biologic drugs are highly sensitive to presence of bioenzymes and bile salts when administered orally. Self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) is a thermodynamically stable lipid formulation that enhances oral absorption of active ingredients via the opening of tight junctions, increasing the membrane fluidity, and thus overcomes the physiological barriers like viscous mucus layer, strong acid conditions and enzymatic degradation. An understanding of different theories that govern SEDDS formation and drug release can help in formulating a highly stable and effective drug delivery system. Poorly permeable drugs such as chlorpromazine require modification using methods like hydrophobic ion pairing, complexation with phospholipids, etc. to enable high entrapment efficiency which is discussed in the article. Additionally, the article gives an overview of the influence of polymers, length of fatty acids chain and zeta potential in enhancing permeation across the intestinal membrane.

Exploring the Potential of Natural Product-Based Nanomedicine for Maintaining Oral Health

Oral diseases pose a major threat to public health across the globe. Diseases such as dental caries, periodontitis, gingivitis, halitosis, and oral cancer affect people of all age groups. Moreover, unhealthy diet practices and the presence of comorbidities aggravate the problem even further. Traditional practices such as the use of miswak for oral hygiene and cloves for toothache have been used for a long time. The present review exhaustively explains the potential of natural products obtained from different sources for the prevention and treatment of dental diseases. Additionally, natural medicine has shown activity in preventing bacterial biofilm resistance and can be one of the major forerunners in the treatment of oral infections. However, in spite of the enormous potential, it is a less explored area due to many setbacks, such as unfavorable physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. Nanotechnology has led to many advances in the dental industry, with various applications ranging from maintenance to restoration. However, can nanotechnology help in enhancing the safety and efficacy of natural products? The present review discusses these issues in detail.

Network pharmacology and experimental investigation of Rhizoma polygonati extract targeted kinase with herbzyme activity for potent drug delivery

Rhizoma polygonati (Huangjing, RP) has been used for a long history with many chemical components in inducing anti-cancer, anti-aging, anti-diabetes, anti-fatigue, and more prevention of diseases or acts as nutrition sources in food. Here we investigated RP extract combination with kinase inhibitors in anti-cell growth and blockade in pathways targeting kinases. Experimental investigation and network pharmacology analysis were applied to test the potent kinase-mediated signaling. Herbzyme activity was determined by substrate with optical density measurement. Extract of processed RP inhibits cell growth in a much greater manner than alone when applied in combination with inhibitors of mTOR or EGFR. Moreover, processing methods of RP from Mount Tai (RP-Mount Tai) play essential roles in herbzyme activity of phosphatase suggesting the interface is also essential, in addition to the chemical component. The network pharmacology analysis showed the chemical component and target networks involving AKT and mTOR, which is consistent with experimental validation. Finally, EGFR inhibitor could be associated with nano-extract of RP-Mount Tai but not significantly affects the phosphatase herbzyme activity in vitro. Thus the processed extract of RP-Mount Tai may play a dual role in the inhibition of cell proliferation signaling by both chemical component and nanoscale herbzyme of phosphatase activity to inhibit kinases including mTOR/AKT in potent drug delivery of kinase inhibitors.

Herbal Nanoformulations for Asthma Treatment

BACKGROUND

In recent decades, the prevalence of asthma has substantially increased worldwide. Advances in phytochemistry and phytopharmacology have clarified the active ingredients and biological activities of medicinal plant products for treating asthma, and the role of herbal therapies in asthma treatment has become increasingly evident. However, most plant extracts have low solubility and poor stability of bioactive components, resulting in low bioavailability and loss of efficacy. Owing to these shortcomings, the clinical use of many herbal extracts is limited.

OBJECTIVE

To summarise and analyse the characteristics of herbal nanoformulations and their application in asthma treatment. The objective of this review article is to address the emerging trends of herbal nanoformulations for an effective treatment for asthma.

METHODS

Various research and review articles from reputed international journals were referred and compiled.

RESULTS

The nano-sized herbal formulations improve the solubility and bioavailability of herbal medicines and contribute to the sustained release of drugs, thus, increasing the therapeutic applications of herbal extracts. The review present different types of herbal nanoformulations, including micelles, nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid-based liquid crystalline nanoparticles and nanoemulsions, which are potential nanodrugs for asthma treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Herbal nanoformulations have shown great prospects for treatment of asthma in recent years. More safety and toxicity data are still needed to promote their development and application.

Quality-by-Design-Based Development of a Voxelotor Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug-Delivery System with Improved Biopharmaceutical Attributes

Low aqueous solubility and poor oral bioavailability are limiting factors in the oral delivery of voxelotor, an antisickling agent. To overcome these limitations, a voxelotor self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system was developed. Various oils, surfactants, and cosurfactants were screened for their solubilization potential for the drug. The area of nanoemulsification was identified using a ternary phase diagram. An experimental mixture design and a desirability function were applied to select SNEDDSs that contain a maximum amount of lipids and a minimum amount of surfactant, and that possess optimal emulsification properties (i.e., droplet sizes, polydispersity index (PDI), emulsification time, and transmittance percentage). The optimized SNEDDS formulation was evaluated for the self-emulsifying time (32 s), droplet size (35 nm), and zeta potential (−8 mV). In vitro dissolution studies indicated a 3.1-fold improvement in drug solubility from the optimized SNEDDS over pure drug powder. After 60 min of in vitro lipolysis, 88% of the voxelotor loaded in the SNEDDS remained in the aqueous phase. Cytotoxicity evaluation, using Caco-2 cells, indicated the safety of the formulation at 0.9 mg/mL. The transport of the voxelotor SNEDDS across Caco-2 monolayers was significantly enhanced compared to that of the free drug. Compared to the drug suspension, the developed SNEDDS enhanced the oral bioavailability (1.7-fold) of voxelotor in rats. The results suggest that further development of SNEDDSs for the oral delivery of voxelotor is needed.

Wound Healing Activity of Opuntia ficus-indica Fixed Oil Formulated in a Self-Nanoemulsifying Formulation

INTRODUCTION

Delayed wound healing represents a common health hazard. Traditional herbal products have been often utilized to promote wound contraction. The current study aimed at assessing the wound healing activity of Opuntia ficus-indica seed oil (OFI) and its self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (OFI-SNEDDS) formula in a rat model of full-thickness skin excision.

METHODS

Based on droplet size, an optimized OFI-SNEDDS formula was prepared and used for subsequent evaluation. Wound healing activity of OFI and OFI-SNEDDS was studied in vivo.

RESULTS

The optimized OFI-SNEDDS formula droplet size was 50.02 nm. The formula exhibited superior healing activities as compared to regular OFI seed oil-treated rats at day 14 of wounding. This effect was further confirmed by histopathological examinations of H&E and Masson's Trichrome-stained skin sections. Moreover, OFI-SNEDDS showed the highest antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities as compared to OFI seed oil-treated animals. Both OFI and OFI-SNEDDS significantly enhanced hydroxyproline skin content and upregulated Col1A1 mRNA expression, accompanied by enhanced expression of transforming factor-beta (TGF-β). Further, OFI-SNEDDS improved angiogenesis as evidenced by increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).

CONCLUSION

OFI possesses wound healing properties that are enhanced by self-emulsification of the oil into nano-droplets. The observed activity can be attributed, at least partly, to its anti-inflammatory, pro-collagen and angiogenic properties.

Enhanced Oral Bioavailability and Improved Biological Activities of a Quercetin/Resveratrol Combination Using a Liquid Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System

Both quercetin and resveratrol are promising plant-derived compounds with various well-described biological activities; however, they are categorized as having low aqueous solubility and labile natural compounds. The purpose of the present study was to propose a drug delivery system to enhance the oral bioavailability of combined quercetin and resveratrol. The suitable self-microemulsifying formulation containing quercetin together with resveratrol comprised 100 mg Capryol 90, 700 mg Cremophor EL, 200 mg Labrasol, 20 mg quercetin, and 20 mg resveratrol, which gave a particle size of 16.91 ± 0.08 nm and was stable under both intermediate and accelerated storage conditions for 12 months. The percentages of release for quercetin and resveratrol in the self-microemulsifying formulation were 75.88 ± 1.44 and 86.32 ± 2.32%, respectively, at 30 min. In rats, an in vivo pharmacokinetics study revealed that the area under the curve of the self-microemulsifying formulation containing quercetin and resveratrol increased approximately ninefold for quercetin and threefold for resveratrol compared with the unformulated compounds. Moreover, the self-microemulsifying formulation containing quercetin and resveratrol slightly enhanced the in vitro antioxidant and cytotoxic effects on AGS, Caco-2, and HT-29 cells. These findings demonstrate that the self-microemulsifying formulation containing quercetin and resveratrol could successfully enhance the oral bioavailability of the combination of quercetin and resveratrol without interfering with their biological activities. These results provide valuable information for more in-depth research into the utilization of combined quercetin and resveratrol.

Optimized semisolid self-nanoemulsifying system based on glyceryl behenate: A potential nanoplatform for enhancing antitumor activity of raloxifene hydrochloride in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells

Raloxifene hydrochloride (RLX) is a selective estrogen receptor modulator used for treatment and protection against postmenopausal osteoporosis. The drug has been used for protection against breast cancer and more recently, for management of the disease by virtue of its estrogen antagonist action. However, the drug has reduced bioavailability related to low water solubility and first pass metabolism. To surmount these pitfalls, this study aimed at developing and optimizing RLX-loaded semisolid self-nanoemulsifying system (SSNES) with minimized globule size to improve the drug solubility, tumor penetration, and consequently antitumor activity. A simplex lattice mixture design was employed for the formulation and optimization of SSNESs. The mixture components, namely, Compritol® 888 ATO, Tween 20, and polyethylene glycol 200 exhibited significant effect on globule size at P < 0.05. The optimized formulation with globule size of 109.19 ± 2.11 nm showed acceptable thermodynamic stability under stress conditions. Anti-cancer efficacy of the obtained formulation was evaluated in MCF-7 breast cancer cell line. MTT viability assay revealed that RLX-loaded SSNES notably inhibited MCF-7 cell proliferation. Flow cytometry and dual staining with annexin V-FITC/PI were used to assay this anti-proliferative effect and induction of apoptosis, respectively. Cells treated with RLX-loaded SSNES showed significant arrest at G2/M phase associated with significant increase in early/late-stages of apoptotic and necrotic cells. The results exhibited that RLX-loaded SSNES induces apoptosis via the activation of caspase-3 and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Accordingly, the proposed SSNES could be regarded as a promising platform for enhancing RLX antitumor activity against breast cancer.

The Evaluation of Drug Delivery Nanocarrier Development and Pharmacological Briefing for Metabolic-Associated Fatty Liver Disease (MAFLD): An Update

Current research indicates that the next silent epidemic will be linked to chronic liver diseases, specifically non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which was renamed as metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) in 2020. Globally, MAFLD mortality is on the rise. The etiology of MAFLD is multifactorial and still incompletely understood, but includes the accumulation of intrahepatic lipids, alterations in energy metabolism, insulin resistance, and inflammatory processes. The available MAFLD treatment, therefore, relies on improving the patient's lifestyle and multidisciplinary pharmacotherapeutic options, whereas the option of surgery is useless without managing the comorbidities of the MAFLD. Nanotechnology is an emerging approach addressing MAFLD, where nanoformulations are suggested to improve the safety and physicochemical properties of conventional drugs/herbal medicines, physical, chemical, and physiological stability, and liver-targeting properties. A wide variety of liver nanosystems were constructed and delivered to the liver, only those that addressed the MAFLD were discussed in this review in terms of the nanocarrier classes, particle size, shape, zeta potential and offered dissolution rate(s), the suitable preparation method(s), excipients (with synergistic effects), and the suitable drug/compound for loading. The advantages and challenges of each nanocarrier and the focus on potential promising perspectives in the production of MAFLD nanomedicine were also highlighted.

Challenges of Dissolution Methods Development for Soft Gelatin Capsules

Recently, the development of soft gelatin capsules (SGCs) dosage forms has attracted a great deal of interest in the oral delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs. This is attributed to the increased number of poorly soluble drugs in the pipeline, and hence the challenges of finding innovative ways of developing bioavailable and stable dosage forms. Encapsulation of these drugs into SGCs is one of the approaches that is utilized to deliver the active ingredients to the systemic circulation to overcome certain formulation hurdles. Once formulated, encapsulated drugs in the form of SGCs require suitable in vitro dissolution test methods to ensure drug product quality and performance. This review focuses on challenges facing dissolution test method development for SGCs. A brief discussion of the physicochemical and formulation factors that affect the dissolution properties of SGCs will be highlighted. Likewise, the influence of cross-linking of gelatin on the dissolution properties of SGCs will also be discussed.

Self-Nano-Emulsifying Drug-Delivery Systems: From the Development to the Current Applications and Challenges in Oral Drug Delivery

Approximately one third of newly discovered drug molecules show insufficient water solubility and therefore low oral bio-availability. Self-nano-emulsifying drug-delivery systems (SNEDDSs) are one of the emerging strategies developed to tackle the issues associated with their oral delivery. SNEDDSs are composed of an oil phase, surfactant, and cosurfactant or cosolvent. SNEDDSs characteristics, their ability to dissolve a drug, and in vivo considerations are determinant factors in the choice of SNEDDSs excipients. A SNEDDS formulation can be optimized through phase diagram approach or statistical design of experiments. The characterization of SNEDDSs includes multiple orthogonal methods required to fully control SNEDDS manufacture, stability, and biological fate. Encapsulating a drug in SNEDDSs can lead to increased solubilization, stability in the gastro-intestinal tract, and absorption, resulting in enhanced bio-availability. The transformation of liquid SNEDDSs into solid dosage forms has been shown to increase the stability and patient compliance. Supersaturated, mucus-permeating, and targeted SNEDDSs can be developed to increase efficacy and patient compliance. Self-emulsification approach has been successful in oral drug delivery. The present review gives an insight of SNEDDSs for the oral administration of both lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds from the experimental bench to marketed products.

Development of a Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Optimized Topical Delivery of Clofazimine

A quality-by-design and characterization approach was followed to ensure development of self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) destined for topical delivery of the highly lipophilic clofazimine. Solubility and water-titration experiments identified spontaneous emulsification capacity of different excipient combinations and clofazimine. After identifying self-emulsification regions, check-point formulations were selected within the self-emulsification region by considering characteristics required to achieve optimized topical drug delivery. Check-point formulations, able to withstand phase separation after 24 h at an ambient temperature, were subjected to characterization studies. Experiments involved droplet size evaluation; size distribution; zeta-potential; self-emulsification time and efficacy; viscosity and pH measurement; cloud point assessment; and thermodynamic stability studies. SEDDSs with favorable properties, i.e., topical drug delivery, were subjected to dermal diffusion studies. Successful in vitro topical clofazimine delivery was observed. Olive oil facilitated the highest topical delivery of clofazimine probably due to increased oleic acid levels that enhanced stratum corneum lipid disruption, followed by improved dermal clofazimine delivery. Finally, isothermal microcalometric experiments studied the compatibility of excipients. Potential interactions were depicted between argan oil and clofazimine as well as between Span®60 and argan-, macadamia- and olive oil, respectively. However, despite some mundane incompatibilities, successful development of topical SEDDSs achieved enhanced topical clofazimine delivery.

Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System of Phillygenin: Formulation Development, Characterization and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

Phillygenin, as an active ingredient of Forsythia suspensa, possesses a wide range of biological and pharmacological activity. However, its development and application are restricted due to its poor bioavailability and low solubility. Our work aimed to develop a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system to improve the oral bioavailability of phillygenin. The composition of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system was preliminary screened by the pseudo-ternary phase diagram. Subsequently, the central composite design method was employed to optimize the prescription of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system loaded with phillygenin. The prepared self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was characterized in terms of morphology, droplet size distribution, polydispersity index and stability. Then, the in vitro dissolution and the oral bioavailability were analyzed. The optimized self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin consisted of 27.8% Labrafil M1944CS, 33.6% Cremophor EL, 38.6% polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG-400) and 10.2 mg/g phillygenin loading. The prepared self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin exhibited spherical and uniform droplets with small size (40.11 ± 0.74 nm) and satisfactory stability. The in vitro dissolution experiment indicated that the cumulative dissolution rate of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was significantly better than that of free phillygenin. Furthermore, after oral administration in rats, the bioavailability of phillygenin was significantly enhanced by the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system. The relative bioavailability of the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin was 588.7% compared to the phillygenin suspension. These findings suggest that the self-microemulsifying drug delivery system of phillygenin can be a promising oral drug delivery system to improve the absorption of phillygenin.

A butanolic fraction from the standardized stem extract of Cassia occidentalis L delivered by a self-emulsifying drug delivery system protects rats from glucocorticoid-induced osteopenia and muscle atrophy

We recently reported that a butanol soluble fraction from the stem of Cassia occidentalis (CSE-Bu) consisting of osteogenic compounds mitigated methylprednisone (MP)-induced osteopenia in rats, albeit failed to afford complete protection thus leaving a substantial scope for further improvement. To this aim, we prepared an oral formulation that was a lipid-based self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system (CSE-BuF). The globule size of CSE-BuF was in the range of 100–180 nm of diluted emulsion and the zeta potential was −28 mV. CSE-BuF enhanced the circulating levels of five osteogenic compounds compared to CSE-Bu. CSE-BuF (50 mg/kg) promoted bone regeneration at the osteotomy site and completely prevented MP-induced loss of bone mass and strength by concomitant osteogenic and anti-resorptive mechanisms. The MP-induced downregulations of miR29a (the positive regulator of the osteoblast transcription factor, Runx2) and miR17 and miR20a (the negative regulators of the osteoclastogenic cytokine RANKL) in bone was prevented by CSE-BuF. In addition, CSE-BuF protected rats from the MP-induced sarcopenia and/or muscle atrophy by downregulating the skeletal muscle atrogenes, adverse changes in body weight and composition. CSE-BuF did not impact the anti-inflammatory effect of MP. Our preclinical study established CSE-BuF as a prophylactic agent against MP-induced osteopenia and muscle atrophy.

Oral absorption and lymphatic transport of baicalein following drug-phospholipid complex incorporation in self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems

PURPOSE

The aims of this study were to prepare a baicalein self-microemulsion with baicalein-phospholipid complex as the intermediate (BAPC-SMEDDS) and to compare its effects with those of conventional baicalein self-microemulsion (CBA-SMEDDS) on baicalein oral absorption and lymphatic transport.

METHODS

Two SMEDDS were characterized by emulsifying efficiency, droplet size, zeta potential, cloud point, dilution stability, physical stability, and in vitro release and lipolysis. Different formulations of 40 mg/kg baicalein were orally administered to Sprague-Dawley rats to investigate their respective bioavailabilities. The chylomicron flow blocking rat model was used to evaluate their lymphatic transport.

RESULTS

The droplet sizes of BAPC-SMEDDS and CBA-SMEDDS after 100x dilution were 9.6±0.2 nm and 11.3±0.4 nm, respectively. In vivo experiments indicated that the relative bioavailability of CBA-SMEDDS and BAPC-SMEDDS was 342.5% and 448.7% compared to that of free baicalein (BA). The AUC0-t and Cmax of BAPC-SMEDDS were 1.31 and 1.87 times higher than those of CBA-SMEDDS, respectively. The lymphatic transport study revealed that 81.2% of orally absorbed BA entered the circulation directly through the portal vein, whereas approximately 18.8% was transported into the blood via lymphatic transport. CBA-SMEDDS and BAPC-SMEDDS increased the lymphatic transport ratio of BA from 18.8% to 56.2% and 70.2%, respectively. Therefore, self-microemulsion not only significantly improves oral bioavailability of baicalein, but also increases the proportion lymphatically transported. This is beneficial to the direct interaction of baicalein with relevant immune cells in the lymphatic system and for proper display of its effects.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates the oral absorption and lymphatic transport characteristics of free baicalein and baicalein SMEDDS with different compositions. This is of great significance to studies on lymphatic targeted delivery of natural immunomodulatory compounds.

Comparison of 1-Palmitoyl-2-Linoleoyl-3-Acetyl-Rac-Glycerol-Loaded Self-Emulsifying Granule and Solid Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System: Powder Property, Dissolution and Oral Bioavailability

The main objective of this study was to compare the powder property, dissolution and bioavailability of 1-palmitoyl-2-linoleoyl-3-acetyl-rac-glycerol (PLAG)-loaded self-emulsifying granule system (SEGS) and solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS). Various SEGS formulations were prepared, and the effect of surfactant and binder on the drug solubility in them, leading to selecting sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) and hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC). The SEGS and SNEDDS were prepared with PLAG/SLS/HPMC/calcium silicate/microcrystalline cellulose at the weight ratio of 1:0.25:0.1:0.5:3 employing the fluid bed granulation and spray-drying technique, respectively. Their powder properties were compared in terms of flow ability, emulsion droplet size, scanning electron microscopy, and powder X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, the solubility, dissolution, and oral bioavailability in rats of the SEGS were assessed in comparison with the SNEDDS. The SEGS and SNEDDS enhanced the solubility of the drug approximately 36- and 32-fold as compared with the drug alone; but they had no differences. The crystalline drug may exist in both the calcium silicate and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) in the SEGS, but only in the calcium silicate in the SNEDDS. The SEGS had considerably improved the flow ability (Hausner ratio, 1.23 vs. 1.07; Carr index, 19.8 vs. 43.5%) and drug dissolution as compared with the SNEDDS. The SEGS and SNEDDS with double peak profiles, unlike the single peak of drug alone, showed a significantly higher plasma concentration and area under the curve (AUC), as compared with drug alone. Although they were not significantly different, the SEGS gave higher AUC than did the SNEDDS, suggesting its enhanced oral bioavailability of PLAG. Thus, the SEGS could be used as a powerful oral dosage form to improve the flow ability and oral bioavailability of PLAG, an oily drug.

Self Emulsifying Drug Delivery System: A Recent Approach

In recent years, nearly 40 % newer drugs compounds are hydrophobic in nature, which is a major challenge now-a-days for oral drug delivering due to low aqueous solubility. Lipid based drug delivery system is one of the favourable approach for poorly soluble compounds which can improve the drug absorption and oral bioavailability. Due to ion-pairing with appropriate surfactant and co-surfactant the macromolecular drug molecular oil droplet being found in the gut flow oral absorption which sufficiently stable towards lipase. Due to the formation of emulsified drug in micron level, it can efficiently endow the oral bioavailability. Several comprehensive papers have been published in the literature illustration diverse type of lipid based formulation with recent advancements. This article is based on an exhaustive and updated review on newer technology which out line an explicit discussion on its formulations and industrial scale up.

Self-microemulsifying Drug Delivery System for Problematic Molecules: An Update

BACKGROUND

The poor bioavailability of a problematic molecule is predominantly due to its high lipophilicity, low solubility in gastric fluids and/or high fist pass metabolism. Self microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS), a lipidic type IV nano-formulation has been of interest in the field of pharmaceutical research due to its potential for tailoring the physicochemical properties of pharmaceutical molecules.

METHODS

This review provides insights on various recent innovations and reports from the past seven years (2012-2019) of self-emulsifying formulations for the delivery of various types of poorly soluble drugs, phytoconstituents and high molecular peptides and gives exhaustive details of the outcome of the endeavors in this field.

RESULTS

Various types of innovative formulations have been molded from SMEDDS like selfemulsifying powders, granules, tablets, pellets, eutectic and cationic formulations. Till date, many research reports and patents have been filed on self-emulsifying dosage forms and many formulations have gained US-FDA approvals which are summarized in the review article.

CONCLUSION

This review content highlighted the increasing scope of SMEDDS in augmenting the physiochemical properties of an API, the variegated formulation types and the attributes of API that can be improved by SMEDD based formulations.

Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System of Tetrandrine for Improved Bioavailability: Physicochemical Characterization and Pharmacokinetic Study

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of self-nanoemulsified drug delivery system (SNEDDS) to improve the oral bioavailability of tetrandrine (Tet). SNEDDS was developed by using rational blends of excipients with good solubilizing ability for Tet which was selected based on solubility studies. Further ternary phase diagram was constructed to determine the self-emulsifying region. The optimal formulation with the best self-nanoemulsified and solubilization ability consisted of 40% (w/w) oleic acid as oil, 15% (w/w) SPC and 30% (w/w) Cremophor RH-40 as surfactant, and 15% (w/w) PEG₄₀₀ as cosurfactant. The average droplet size and zeta-potential of the optimal Tet SNEDDS were 19.75±0.37 nm and 1.87±0.26 mv, respectively. The dissolute rate of Tet SNEDDS in various dissolution media was remarkably faster than Tet commercial tablet. Moreover, in vivo pharmacokinetic study results show that significant increase (p≤ 0.05) in the peak concentration (Cmax) and the area under the curve (AUC) of Tet was observed after the oral administration of Tet SNEDDS and the absorption of Tet from SNEDDS resulted in approximately 2.33-fold increase in oral bioavailability compared with the commercial tablet. Our research suggests that the prepared Tet SNEDDS could be a good candidate for improved the dissolution and oral bioavailability of Tet.

Self microemulsifying formulation of Lagerstroemia speciosa against chemically induced hepatotoxicity

Self microemulsifying formulation is an approach used for enhancing the bioavailability of poorly soluble molecules due to their lipidic nature and small particle size. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the hepatoprotective activity of poorly soluble hydroxy- and polyhydroxy-organic phytomolecules rich Lagerstroemia speciosa leaves extract in modern formulation i.e. "Self microemulsifying System". Different doses of SME (Self microemulsifying) formulation of L. speciosa leaves extract were evaluated for the hepatoprotective activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver toxicity in rats. The parameters evaluated were (a) biochemical parameters like serum enzymes: aspartate aminotransferase (AST), serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase (ALT), serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and total bilirubin (b) liver antioxidant parameters as estimation of Lipid peroxidation (LPO), catalase (CAT), Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and concentration of reduced glutathione (GSH). Oral administration of SME formulation provided the significant protection in marker enzyme of treated group at 100 mg/kg, p.o. as AST (P < 0.001), ALT (P < 0.001), ALP (P < 0.001) and total bilirubin (P < 0.001) comparable to the group treated with silymarin. Treatment with SME formulation at the doses of 100 mg/kg, p.o. significantly prevented the rise in levels of LPO significantly (P < 0.001). The GSH, SOD and CAT contents had significantly (P < 0.001) increased in SME formulation treated groups whereas carbon tetrachloride intoxicated group had shown significant decrease in these parameters compared to control group. Formulation at the dose 100 mg/kg, p.o. has shown maximum protection which was almost comparable to those of the normal control and standard. The histological observations further uphold the results for hepatoprotective activity.

Pharmacodynamic evaluation of self micro-emulsifying formulation of standardized extract of Lagerstroemia speciosa for antidiabetic activity

BACKGROUND

Lagerstroemia speciosa (SEL) leaves are a popular folk medicine for diabetes treatment due to presence of corosolic acid. It has low water solubility resulting poor absorption after oral administration. Self micro-emulsified drug delivery system is the way by which we can improve the oral absorption of drug.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to develop the self micro-emulsifying formulation of standardized extract of SEL leaves and evaluate its pharmacodynamic performance for antidiabetic activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The SME formulation was prepared by using sefsol-218 as oil, cremophor-EL as surfactant and transcutol-P as co-surfactant. The ratio of surfactant and co-surfactant was determined by pseudoternary phase diagram. SME formulations were characterized for dilution at different pH, self emulsification, optical clarity, globule size and thermodynamic stability. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of formulations was assessed in Wistar rats by using parameters viz. blood glucose level and serum lipid profile.

RESULTS

SEL loaded SME formulation was successfully developed by using sefsol-218, cremophor-EL and transcutol-P with a droplet size 23.53 nm. Pharmacodynamic results showed a higher reduction in blood glucose by SME formulation than SEL without SMES respectively at 50 mg/kg dose while reduction produced at dose of 100 mg/kg was found significant and better on 15th day of study. The percentage reduction produced by SME formulation on serum lipid profile was also significant and was more prominent than SEL.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms that the formulation elevates the pharmacodynamic performance of SEL approximately two fold.

Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems Containing Plantago lanceolata-An Assessment of Their Antioxidant and Antiinflammatory Effects

The most important components of Plantago lanceolata L. leaves are catalpol, aucubin, and acteoside (=verbascoside). These bioactive compounds possess different pharmacological effects: anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antineoplastic, and hepatoprotective. The aim of this study was to protect Plantago lanceolata extract from hydrolysis and to improve its antioxidant effect using self-nano-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS). Eight SNEDDS compositions were prepared, and their physical properties, in vitro cytotoxicity, and in vivo AST/ALT values were investigated. MTT cell viability assay was performed on Caco-2 cells. The well-diluted samples (200 to 1000-fold dilutions) proved to be non-cytotoxic. The acute administration of PL-SNEDDS compositions resulted in minor changes in hepatic markers (AST, ALT), except for compositions 4 and 8 due to their high Transcutol contents (80%). The non-toxic compositions showed a significant increase in free radical scavenger activity measured by the DPPH test compared to the blank SNEDDS. An indirect dissolution test was performed, based on the result of the DPPH antioxidant assay; the dissolution profiles of Plantago lancolata extract were statistically different from each SNEDDS. The anti-inflammatory effect of PL-SNEDDS compositions was confirmed by the ear inflammation test. For the complete examination period, all compositions decreased ear edema as compared to the positive (untreated) control. It can be concluded that PL-SNEDDS compositions could be used to deliver active natural compounds in a stable, efficient, and safe manner.

Preparation and evaluation of a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system loaded with Akebia saponin D-phospholipid complex

BACKGROUND

Akebia saponin D (ASD) exerts various pharmacological activities but with poor oral bioavailability. In this study, a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) based on the drug-phospholipid complex technique was developed to improve the oral absorption of ASD.

METHODS

ASD-phospholipid complex (APC) was prepared using a solvent-evaporation method and characterized by infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, morphology observation, and solubility test. Oil and cosurfactant were selected according to their ability to dissolve APC, while surfactant was chosen based on its emulsification efficiency in SNEDDS. Pseudoternary phase diagrams were constructed to determine the optimized APC-SNEDDS formulation, which was characterized by droplet size determination, zeta potential determination, and morphology observation. Robustness to dilution and thermodynamic stability of optimized formulation were also evaluated. Subsequently, pharmacokinetic parameters and oral bioavailability of ASD, APC, and APC-SNEDDS were investigated in rats.

RESULTS

The liposolubility significantly increased 11.4-fold after formation of APC, which was verified by the solubility test in n-octanol. Peceol (Glyceryl monooleate [type 40]), Cremophor^® EL (Polyoxyl 35 castor oil), and Transcutol HP (Diethylene glycol monoethyl ether) were selected as oil, surfactant, and cosurfactant, respectively. The optimal formulation was composed of Glyceryl monooleate (type 40), Polyoxyl 35 castor oil, Diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, and APC (1:4.5:4.5:1.74, w/w/w/w), which showed a particle size of 148.0±2.7 nm and a zeta potential of -13.7±0.92 mV after dilution with distilled water at a ratio of 1:100 (w/w) and good colloidal stability. Pharmacokinetic studies showed that APC-SNEDDS exhibited a significantly greater C_max1 (733.4±203.8 ng/mL) than ASD (437.2±174.2 ng/mL), and a greater C_max2 (985.8±366.6 ng/mL) than ASD (180.5±75.1 ng/mL) and APC (549.7±113.5 ng/mL). Compared with ASD, T_max1 and T_max2 were both remarkably shortened by APC-SNEDDS. The oral bioavailability in rats was enhanced significantly to 183.8% and 431.8% by APC and APC-SNEDDS, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that APC-SNEDDS was a promising drug delivery system to enhance the oral bioavailability of ASD.

Nanoemulsion formulations for anti-cancer agent piplartine--Characterization, toxicological, pharmacokinetics and efficacy studies

Piplartine (PL) is an alkaloid found in black-pepper and known for its anticancer activity, however, due to poor solubility and lack of proper formulation, its use for oral administration is a challenge. The objective of this study was to formulate PL into nanoemulsion drug delivery system for oral delivery and thereafter evaluate toxicity, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy. Optimized nanoemulsions were formulated by self-emulsification as well as by homogenization-sonication method. Two nanoemulsions enhanced the solubility of PL with low polydispersity index and high stability. Both PL loaded nanoemulsions exhibited enhanced dissolution, cellular permeability and cytotoxic effects as compared to pure PL. Formulation of PL into nanoemulsions did not obstruct its cellular uptake in cancer cells. Blank or PL loaded nanoemulsions did not exhibited toxicity in mice upon daily oral administration for 60 days. Pharmacokinetics of PL followed a two-compartment model after intravenous administration. PL loaded nanoemulsions showed 1.5-fold increase in oral bioavailability as compared to free PL. Finally, PL loaded nanoemulsions showed marked anti-tumor activity at a dose of 10mg/kg in melanoma tumor bearing mice. In conclusion, for the first time we have developed a stable nanoemulsion delivery system for oral administration of PL, which enhanced its solubility, oral bioavailability and anti-tumor efficacy.