Implication of thymoquinone as a remedy for polycystic ovary in rat

Role of oxylipins in ovarian function and disease: A comprehensive review

Ovaries are essential for healthy female reproduction, with the follicles as their fundamental functional units, which consist of an oocyte and surrounding granulosa cells. The development and formation of follicles in the ovaries are closely linked to reproductive health. Oxylipins refer to oxidative metabolites produced from the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, either through automatic oxidation or with the help of specific enzymes. They play crucial regulatory roles in the immune system, oxidative stress, and inflammatory reactions and are intimately linked to the development of numerous illnesses, such as diabetes, heart disease, asthma, and Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, oxylipins have a complex relationship with ovarian function, and both prostaglandins and leukotrienes produced by arachidonic acid affect processes such as follicle growth and development, ovulation, and hormone regulation. The synthesis and metabolism of oxylipins in the ovaries are finely regulated. Oxylipin dysregulation has been linked to various ovarian diseases, including endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, ovarian cancer, and premature ovarian insufficiency. In addition, potential therapeutic targets and interventions targeting the oxylipin pathway for the treatment of ovarian diseases have become a prominent research focus, including regulating the enzymes responsible for oxylipin synthesis, using anti-inflammatory agents, and regulating lipid metabolism. Recent research has been directed towards improving the reproductive outcomes of women with ovarian diseases through this series of interventions. An overview of the role of oxylipins in ovarian function and disease is provided in this article, which will aid researchers in understanding the current state of the field and in identifying future directions.

Molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways of black cumin (Nigella sativa) and its active constituent, thymoquinone: a review

BACKGROUND

Nigella sativa and its main bioactive ingredient, thymoquinone, exhibit various pharmacological activities, including neuroprotective, nephroprotective, cardioprotective, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and anti-cancer effects. Many studies have been conducted trying to elucidate the molecular signaling pathways that mediate these diverse pharmacological properties of N. sativa and thymoquinone. Accordingly, the goal of this review is to show the effects of N. sativa and thymoquinone on different cell signaling pathways.

METHODS

The online databases Scopus, PubMed and Web of Science were searched to identify relevant articles using a list of related keywords such as Nigella sativa, black cumin, thymoquinone, black seed, signal transduction, cell signaling, antioxidant, Nrf2, NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, apoptosis, JAK/STAT, AMPK, MAPK, etc. Only articles published in the English language until May 2022 were included in the present review article.

RESULTS

Studies indicate that N. sativa and thymoquinone improve antioxidant enzyme activities, effectively scavenges free radicals, and thus protect cells from oxidative stress. They can also regulate responses to oxidative stress and inflammation via Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways. N. sativa and thymoquinone can inhibit cancer cell proliferation through disruption of the PI3K/AKT pathway by upregulating phosphatase and tensin homolog. Thymoquinone can modulate reactive oxygen species levels in tumor cells, arrest the cell cycle in the G2/M phase as well as affect molecular targets including p53, STAT3 and trigger the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Thymoquinone, by adjusting AMPK, can regulate cellular metabolism and energy hemostasis. Finally, N. sativa and thymoquinone can elevate brain GABA content, and thus it may ameliorate epilepsy.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, the improvement of antioxidant status and prevention of inflammatory process by modulating the Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling and inhibition of cancer cell proliferation through disruption of the PI3K/AKT pathway appear to be the main mechanisms involved in different pharmacological properties of N. sativa and thymoquinone.

The significance of thymoquinone administration on liver toxicity of diazinon and cholinesterase activity; a recommendation for prophylaxis among individuals at risk

BACKGROUND

Diazinon (DZN), a widely used chemical herbicide for controlling agricultural pests, is an important organophosphorus pesticide and an environmental pollutant which induces toxic effects on living organisms during long-term exposure. Thymoquinone (TQ) is a phytochemical bioactive compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. We aimed to evaluate the protective effects of TQ against DZN-induced hepatotoxicity through alleviating oxidative stress and enhancing cholinesterase (ChE) enzyme activity.

METHODS

Rats were randomly divided into six groups (n = 8); a negative control group receiving corn oil; a group only receiving DZN (20 mg/kg/day); a group treated with TQ (10 mg/kg/day), and three treatment groups as TQ + DZN, receiving different doses of TQ (2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg/day). All experimental animals were orally treated for 28 consecutive days. The levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and lactic acid dehydrogenase (LDH) were determined. In addition, ChE activity and histopathological changes were evaluated.

RESULTS

The results showed that DZN decreased GSH level (p < 0.01) and SOD activity (p < 0.01) in parallel to an increase in MDA level (p < 0.01) and increased the activity of AST, ALT, ALP, and LDH (p < 0.01) in comparison to the negative control group. Our findings demonstrated that TQ administration could diminish hepatotoxicity and reduce oxidative damage in DZN-treated rats, which could be linked to its antioxidant and free radical scavenging properties. It was also observed that TQ 10 mg/kg remarkably increased the activity of acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, and SOD enzymes, elevated GSH, decreased MDA, and reduced pathological alternations of the liver induced by DZN.

CONCLUSION

Thymoquinone 10 mg/kg increased the activity of plasma and blood cholinesterases and reduced DZN-induced alternations of the liver. Improvement of butyryl- and acetylcholinesterase activity suggests that maybe TQ supplement could be beneficial as pre-exposure prophylaxis among farm workers spraying pesticides.

Promoting action of vitamin E and black seed oil on reproductive hormones and organ histoarchitecture of Swiss albino mice

Background

Vitamin E and black seed oil are two powerful antioxidants with several health benefits.

Objective

The effect of vitamin E and black seed oil on reproductive performance of Swiss albino mice was studied.

Methods

A total of 80 (40 male and 40 female) mice of 25–28 days old were randomly divided into four groups viz., A, B, C and D consisting of 10 mice in each group. Mice from the group A served as vehicle control and received normal mice ration whereas mice from the group B, C and D received feed supplemented with either black seed oil (0.5 ml/kg), vitamin E (200 mg/kg) or combination of black seed oil (0.5 ml/kg) and vitamin E (200 mg/kg), respectively daily for 16 weeks. At the end point of the study, blood samples were collected and sera were separated for hormonal analysis. At the same time, mice were sacrificed and testes and ovaries were collected for histomorphological examination.

Results

In male mice, the level of testosterone increased significantly in mice receiving black seed oil only, whereas the thyroxin increased significantly in all treated groups when compared to the control mice. Histomorphological examination revealed a significant increase in the diameter of seminiferous tubules in male mice fed with either black seed oil or vitamin E or both. On the other hand, the oestradiol and thyroxin concentration in female mice showed no significant changes in both control and treated groups. However, ovaries of mice fed with black seed oil or vitamin E or both showed an increased number of the follicles of different stages than the control mice.

Conclusions

The findings highlighted the promoting action of vitamin E and black seed oil on reproductive functions of mice and that can be used to treat infertility in man and animals.

Thymoquinone improves cognitive and hippocampal long-term potentiation deficits due to hepatic encephalopathy in rats

OBJECTIVES

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric syndrome that causes brain disturbances. Thymoquinone (TQ) has a wide spectrum of activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of TQ on spatial memory and hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) in rats with thioacetamide (TAA)-induced liver injury and hepatic encephalopathy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adult male Wistar rats were divided into six groups randomly: 1) Control; 2) HE, received TAA (200 mg/kg); 3-5) Treated groups (HE+TQ5, HE+TQ10, and HE+TQ20). TQ (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally (IP) for 12 consecutive days from day 18 to 29. Subsequently, spatial memory performance was evaluated by the Morris water maze paradigm and hippocampal LTP was recorded from the dentate gyrus (DG) region. Activity levels of Malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were measured in the hippocampal tissue.

RESULTS

Data showed that the hippocampal content of MDA was increased while SOD activities were decreased in TAA-induced HE. TQ treatment significantly improved spatial memory and LTP. Moreover, TQ restored the levels of MDA and SOD activities in the hippocampal tissue in HE rats.

CONCLUSION

Our data confirm that TQ could attenuate cognitive impairment and improve LTP deficit by modulating the oxidative stress parameters in this model of HE, which leads to impairment of spatial cognition and LTP deficit. Thus, these results suggest that TQ may be a promising agent with positive therapeutic effects against liver failure and HE defects.

Black Cumin (Nigella sativa L.): A Comprehensive Review on Phytochemistry, Health Benefits, Molecular Pharmacology, and Safety

Mounting evidence support the potential benefits of functional foods or nutraceuticals for human health and diseases. Black cumin (Nigella sativa L.), a highly valued nutraceutical herb with a wide array of health benefits, has attracted growing interest from health-conscious individuals, the scientific community, and pharmaceutical industries. The pleiotropic pharmacological effects of black cumin, and its main bioactive component thymoquinone (TQ), have been manifested by their ability to attenuate oxidative stress and inflammation, and to promote immunity, cell survival, and energy metabolism, which underlie diverse health benefits, including protection against metabolic, cardiovascular, digestive, hepatic, renal, respiratory, reproductive, and neurological disorders, cancer, and so on. Furthermore, black cumin acts as an antidote, mitigating various toxicities and drug-induced side effects. Despite significant advances in pharmacological benefits, this miracle herb and its active components are still far from their clinical application. This review begins with highlighting the research trends in black cumin and revisiting phytochemical profiles. Subsequently, pharmacological attributes and health benefits of black cumin and TQ are critically reviewed. We overview molecular pharmacology to gain insight into the underlying mechanism of health benefits. Issues related to pharmacokinetic herb-drug interactions, drug delivery, and safety are also addressed. Identifying knowledge gaps, our current effort will direct future research to advance potential applications of black cumin and TQ in health and diseases.

Upsurge in autophagy, associated with mifepristone-treated polycystic ovarian condition, is reversed upon thymoquinone treatment

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a multi-factorial gynecological endocrine disorder. It affects fertility in women and also predisposes to insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity etc. Earlier, significance of autophagy has been explored in PCOS-related metabolic disorders and during normal folliculogenesis. Increasing evidences reveal connection of autophagy with chronic inflammatory behaviour, an associated phenomena in polycystic ovaries. However, understanding of the association of autophagy with PCOS is still obscure. This study reveals that increased autophagy in mifepristone (RU486) treated KK-1 cells and in vivo PCO rat model is characterized by upregulated Androgen Receptor (AR) expression and downregulated PCO biomarker aromatase. The prevalence of autophagy has been observed to be concomitant with increased expression of two autophagic markers Beclin1 and MAP-LC3-II while the autophagy substrate p62/SQSTM1 was downregulated. Immunohistochemical staining revealed increased localization of MAP-LC3 in the compacted granulosa layers of the follicular cysts in the PCO model. The PCO rat models also demonstrated augmented levels of p65, the active subunit of NF-κB, which acts as a transcriptional regulator of several pro-inflammatory factors. NF-κB repressor and anti-inflammatory herbal drug thymoquinone, known to alleviate PCO condition, downregulated autophagy modules substantially. Pre-treatment with thymoquinone upregulated aromatase, reduced AR levels and decreased autophagic markers as well as p65 levels, simulating super-ovulated condition. In conclusion, the anti-inflammatory phytochemical thymoquinone alleviated PCO condition.

Development of antibacterial nanofibrous wound dressing and conceptual reaction mechanism to deactivate the viral protein by Nigella sativa extract

Nigella sativa (N. sativa) is extensively used as medicinal plant all over the world. It has the potential properties as the antiviral and antibacterial application. Its seed contain thymoquinone (TQ), thymohydroquinone (THQ), thymol (THY), p-cymene as major and other minor components. TQ and THQ exhibit broad spectrum of antimicrobial properties against the activity of bacteria, viruses, parasites, schistosoma and fungi. This work provides credence to the fabrication of antibacterial nanofibrous membrane by electrospinning machine from N. sativa extract with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) solution for wound dressing. The morphology of the developed membrane is also characterized using scanning electron microscope. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) data has been showed that the functional groups of N. sativa are present in the prepared PVA-N. sativa nanofibrous membrane and its antibacterial activity was investigated. The disk diffusion method has been used to evaluate the antibacterial activity of PVA-N. sativa nanofibrous membrane against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) bacteria and the inhibition zone with a value of 10 mm is formed. Considering the inherent properties of N. sativa, a conceptual reaction mechanism has been proposed to deactivate the viral proteins by the action of TQ and THQ.

Improvement in the epigenetic modification and development competence in PCOS mice oocytes by hydro-alcoholic extract of Nigella sativa during in-vitro maturation: An experimental study

Background

Nigella Sativa (NS) and its active component, thymoquinone, have beneficial protective effects on experimental animal models of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and different human diseases.

Objective

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of NS hydro-alcoholic extract (NSE) on the oocyte quality of PCOS mice during in vitro maturation.

Materials and Methods

For induction of PCOS, 40 prepubertal 21-days old female B6D2F1 mice (18-22 g body weight) received subcutaneous dehydroepiandrosterone daily. After validation of the model, germinal vesicle-stage oocytes of superovulated mice were collected and placed in the culture medium containing different concentrations (0, 1, 50, and 100 μg/ml) of NSE. For the measurement of developmental competency, some mature oocytes were fertilized with epididymal spermatozoa. Other mature oocytes were assessed for oxidative stress. Also, some mRNA expression levels involved in oocyte maturation and epigenetic modification were evaluated.

Results

The 50 μg/ml NSE treated group showed significantly higher r ates o f maturation, f ertilization, and blastocyst formation in comparison with both control and PCOS groups. A high level of glutathione concentration and glutathione peroxidase mRNA expression, besides a low level of reactive oxygen species content all, were observed in oocytes treated with 50 μg/ml NSE, indicating the modification of oxidative statue. Furthermore, the oocytes in the 50 μg/ml-treated group showed an upregulation of mRNA expression in epigenetic-related genes (Dnmt1 and Hdac1) and maternally derived genes (Mapk and Cdk1), correspondingly downregulation of cyclooxygenase2 mRNA expression, in comparison to other groups.

Conclusion

The results of this study indicated that 50 μg/ml NSE improves oocyte maturation, oxidative statues and epigenetic modifications. These may be the all reasons for the developmental competency in the control and PCOS mice oocytes.

Thymoquinone ameliorates obesity-induced metabolic dysfunction, improves reproductive efficiency exhibiting a dose-organ relationship

Women with obesity are more likely to have a complicated reproductive life. Insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction are associated with obesity. Thymoquinone (TQ) is a well-known antioxidant, considered to be an AMPK-activator. The goal of this work was to investigate the ability of TQ to improve fertility and lactation and clarify the possible mechanism. Female C57BL/6 mice were subjected to High Fat Diet (HFD) supplemented with TQ (10% pmm) and TQ (20% pmm). Histopathological examination was conducted on mammary and ovarian samples. Metabolic and oxidant status was evaluated, and qRT-PCR analysis was performed to verify AMPK/PGC1α/SIRT1 metabolic pathway activity. The present study reports positive effects of TQ on ovarian metabolic function in a dose-dependent manner. TQ showed its positive effects on mammary gland metabolic function at lower dose. This is the first study that indicates these dose related impacts of TQ. Abbreviations: AKT1: serine-threonine protein kinase 1; AMPK: 5' AMP-activated protein kinase; CAT: catalase; CON: control; FBS: fasting blood sugar; GLUT1: glucose transporter 1; GSH: reduced glutathione; GSSG: Glutathione disulfide; HE: hematoxylin and eosin stains; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; HFD: high fat diet; IL-6: interleukin-6; K18: keratin 18; LD: lactation day; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; LKB1: serine-threonine liver kinase B1; MDA: malondialdehyde; mTOR: the mammalian target of rapamycin; NAD: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide; NADH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; NS: nigella sativa; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PGC1α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha; SIRT1: sirtuin 1; SOD: superoxide dismutase; T-AOC: total antioxidants; TFAM: transcription factor A mitochondrial; TG: triglycerides; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; TQ: thymoquinone; TQ10: high fat diet + thymoquinone 10% ppm; TQ20: high fat diet + thymoquinone 20% ppm; UCP2: uncoupling Protein 2.

Thymoquinone reduces intracytoplasmic oxidative stress and improves epigenetic modification in polycystic ovary syndrome mice oocytes, during in-vitro maturation

Although in-vitro maturation (IVM) of oocytes has been presented as an alternative treatment to traditional stimulated in-vitro fertilization, the culture condition can be improved by natural antioxidants. Thus, we investigated the protective effect of Thymoquinone (TQ) during IVM in the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) mice model. The induction of PCOS was made by dehydroepiandrosterone via subcutaneous injection, in prepubertal female B6D2F1-mice. After 21 days later, germinal vesicle (GV)-stage-oocytes were extracted and incubated in IVM media containing 0, 1.0, 10.0, and 100.0 μM of TQ. To assess fertilization and blastulation rates, after 22-24 hr, the treated oocytes were fertilized in-vitro with epididymal spermatozoa. Some other oocytes were evaluated for maturation, epigenetic, and oxidative stress markers. Similarly, the mRNA expression of epigenetic enzymes genes (Dnmt1 and Hdac1), three maternally derived genes (Mapk, CyclinB, and Cdk1) and apoptosis-related genes (Bax and Bcl2) were assessed. Our results showed that the maturation, fertilization, and blastulation rates were significantly higher in the 10.0 μM TQ-treated group compared with the untreated group and likewise with in-vivo matured oocytes. The Bax expression was reduced in 10.0 μM TQ matured oocytes, but Bcl2, Dnmt1, Hdac1, Cdk1, and Mapk were upregulated in this group compared to other groups. Furthermore, dimethylation of histone-3 at lysine-9 (H3K9m2) and DNA methylation were significantly increased whereas H4K12 acetylation (H4K12ac) was decreased in the 10.0 μM TQ-treated group in comparison with control and in-vivo matured oocytes. Therefore, our results are suggesting that 10.0 μM TQ may enhance the developmental competence of PCOS oocytes via the modulation of oxidative stress and epigenetic alterations.

Herbal Medicine for Oligomenorrhea and Amenorrhea: A Systematic Review of Ancient and Conventional Medicine

Introduction

Menstrual bleeding cessation is one of the most frequent gynecologic disorders among women in reproductive age. The treatment is based on hormone therapy. Due to the increasing request for alternative medicine remedies in the field of women's diseases, in present study, it was tried to overview medicinal plants used to treat oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea according to the pharmaceutical textbooks of traditional Persian medicine (TPM) and review the evidence in the conventional medicine.

Methods

This systematic review was designed and performed in 2017 in order to gather information regarding herbal medications of oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea in TPM and conventional medicine. This study had several steps as searching Iranian traditional medicine literature and extracting the emmenagogue plants, classifying the plants, searching the electronic databases, and finding evidences. To search traditional Persian medicine references, Noor digital library was used, which includes several ancient traditional medical references. The classification of plants was done based on the repetition and potency of the plants in the ancient literatures. The required data was gathered using databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, Science Direct, and web of knowledge.

Results

In present study of all 198 emmenagogue medicinal plants found in TPM, 87 cases were specified to be more effective in treating oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea. In second part of present study, where a search of conventional medicine was performed, 12 studies were found, which had 8 plants investigated: Vitex agnus-castus, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Foeniculum vulgare, Cinnamomum verum, Paeonia lactiflora, Sesamum indicum, Mentha longifolia, and Urtica dioica. Conclusion. Traditional Persian medicine has proposed many different medicinal plants for treatment of oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea. Although just few plants have been proven to be effective for treatment of menstrual irregularities, the results and the classification in present study can be used as an outline for future studies and treatment.

Multi-functional, multicompartmental hyaluronan-binding protein 1 (HABP1/p32/gC1qR): implication in cancer progression and metastasis

Cancer is a complex, multi-factorial, multi-stage disease and a global threat to human health. Early detection of nature and stage of cancer is highly crucial for disease management. Recent studies have proved beyond any doubt about the involvement of the ubiquitous, myriad ligand binding, multi-functional human protein, hyaluronan-binding protein 1 (HABP1), which is identical to the splicing factor associated protein (p32) and the receptor of the globular head of the complement component (gC1qR) in tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis. Simultaneously three laboratories have discovered and named this protein separately as mentioned. Subsequently, different scientists have worked on the distinct functions in cellular processes ranging from immunological response, splicing mechanism, sperm-oocyte interactions, cell cycle regulation to cancer and have concentrated in their respective area of interest, referring it as either p32 or gC1qR or HABP1. HABP1 overexpression has been reported in almost all the tissue-specific forms of cancer and correlated with stage and poor prognosis in patients. In order to tackle this deadly disease and for therapeutic intervention, it is imperative to focus on all the regulatory aspects of this protein. Hence, this work is an attempt to combine an assortment of information on this protein to have an overview, which suggests its use as a diagnostic marker for cancer. The knowledge might assist in the designing of drugs for therapeutic intervention of HABP1/p32/gC1qR regulated specific ligand mediated pathways in cancer.

Renal protective effects of thymoquinone against sodium nitrite-induced chronic toxicity in rats: Impact on inflammation and apoptosis

AIMS

Sodium nitrite is a widely used color fixative and preservative. However, it has been reported to exert deleterious toxic effects on various body organs. Moreover, thymoquinone (TQ), the active constituent of Nigella sativa oil is known to possess beneficial antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The present study was conducted to evaluate the potential protective effects of TQ against sodium nitrite-induced renal toxicity.

MAIN METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with sodium nitrite (80mg/kg, po, daily) in presence or absence of TQ (25 and 50mg/kg, po, daily). Morphological changes in renal sections were assessed by staining with Hematoxylin/Eosin and Periodic acid-Schiff. Renal homogenate was used for measurement of oxidative stress markers (MDA and GSH), inflammatory markers (CRP, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β), anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10 and IL-4) and apoptotic markers (caspase-3/caspase-8/caspase-9).

KEY FINDINGS

Treatment with sodium nitrite significantly increased markers of renal dysfunction, oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis. These effects were markedly attenuated by TQ in dose dependent manner.

SIGNIFICANCE

TQ has a potential protective effect against sodium nitrite-induced renal toxicity. This can be attributed to its ability to dampen oxidative stress, restore the normal balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and protect renal tissue form extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis.

Mitigation of cadmium-induced lung injury by Nigella sativa oil

Induction of oxidative stress and inflammation are considered the primary mechanism of cadmium (Cd) toxicity. Nigella sativa (NS) seeds and their oil (NSO) have been reported to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. This study was conducted to assess the protective effect of NSO on Cd-induced lung damage in rat. Forty adult male Wistar rats were divided equally into 4 groups. Animals in groups I, II, and III received 1 ml of isotonic saline intraperitoneally (IP), 2 mg/kg of cadmium chloride (CdCl₂) dissolved in isotonic saline IP, and 1 ml/kg of NSO by gastric gavage, respectively. Group IV rats received NSO an hour prior to CdCl₂ administration via the same routes and doses as previously described. All animals were treated for 28 days. At the end of the study, animals were sacrificed; lungs were harvested for histopathological studies using light and electron microscopy. Saline-treated and NSO-treated rats showed normal lung parenchyma. However, CdCl₂-treated rats showed massive degenerative changes in alveolar epithelial lining, disrupted interalveolar septa, and hemolytic debris in alveoli. Rats treated with both NSO and CdCl₂ (group IV) showed amelioration of most Cd-induced lung damage with minimal histopathological changes in lung architecture. This study elucidates the protective effects of NSO on Cd-induced lung injury in rats and highlights the possibility of using NSO as a protective agent in individuals at high risk of Cd-induced lung toxicity.