Pesticide photoproducts: generation and significance

Direct photolysis mechanism of pesticides in water

Photodegradation is one of the most important abiotic transformations for pesticides in the aquatic environment, and the high energy of sunlight causes characteristic reactions such as bond scission, cyclization, and rearrangement, which are scarcely observed in hydrolysis and microbial degradation. This review deals with direct photolysis via excitation of a pesticide by absorbing natural or artificial sunlight in order to know its basic photochemistry, and indirect photolysis meaning either sensitization by dissolved organic matters or oxidation by reactive oxygen species is basically excluded. Several experimental approaches including spectroscopic techniques together with theoretical calculations are first discussed from the viewpoint of the reaction mechanisms in direct photolysis. Then, the typical photoreactions of pesticides are summarized by chemical classes and/or functional groups and discussed as far as possible in relation to their mechanisms.

Printed Graphene Electrochemical Biosensors Fabricated by Inkjet Maskless Lithography for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of Organophosphates

Solution phase printing of graphene-based electrodes has recently become an attractive low-cost, scalable manufacturing technique to create in-field electrochemical biosensors. Here, we report a graphene-based electrode developed via inkjet maskless lithography (IML) for the direct and rapid monitoring of triple-O linked phosphonate organophosphates (OPs); these constitute the active compounds found in chemical warfare agents and pesticides that exhibit acute toxicity as well as long-term pollution to soils and waterways. The IML-printed graphene electrode is nano/microstructured with a 1000 mW benchtop laser engraver and electrochemically deposited platinum nanoparticles (dia. ∼25 nm) to improve its electrical conductivity (sheet resistance decreased from ∼10 000 to 100 Ω/sq), surface area, and electroactive nature for subsequent enzyme functionalization and biosensing. The enzyme phosphotriesterase (PTE) was conjugated to the electrode surface via glutaraldehyde cross-linking. The resulting biosensor was able to rapidly measure (5 s response time) the insecticide paraoxon (a model OP) with a low detection limit (3 nM), and high sensitivity (370 nA/μM) with negligible interference from similar nerve agents. Moreover, the biosensor exhibited high reusability (average of 0.3% decrease in sensitivity per sensing event), stability (90% anodic current signal retention over 1000 s), longevity (70% retained sensitivity after 8 weeks), and the ability to selectively sense OP in actual soil and water samples. Hence, this work presents a scalable printed graphene manufacturing technique that can be used to create OP biosensors that are suitable for in-field applications as well as, more generally, for low-cost biosensor test strips that could be incorporated into wearable or disposable sensing paradigms.

More toxic and photoresistant products from photodegradation of fenoxaprop-p-ethyl

The photodegradation pathway of the commonly used herbicide fenoxaprop-p-ethyl (FE) was elucidated, and the effects of the photodegradation on its toxicity evolution were investigated. Under solar irradiation, FE could undergo photodegradation, and acetone enhanced the photolysis rates significantly. The same photoproducts formed under the irradiation of lambda > 200 nm and lambda > 290 nm through rearrangement, loss of ethanol after rearrangement, de-esterification, dechlorination, photohydrolysis, and the breakdown of the ether linkages. One of the main transformation products, 4-[(6-chloro-2-benzoxazolyl)oxy] phenol (CBOP), was resistant to photodegradation under the irradiation of lambda > 290 nm, and its photolysis rate was seven times slower than the parent under the irradiation of lambda > 200 nm. Among the metabolites, CBOP (48 h EC50 of 1.49-1.64 mg/L) and hydroquinone (48 h EC50 of 0.25-0.28 mg/L) were more toxic to Daphnia magna than the parent FE (48 h EC50 of 4.2-6.9 mg/L). Thus, more toxic and photoresistant products were generated from photolysis of the herbicide. Ecotoxicological effects of phototransformed products from pesticides should be emphasized for the ecological risk assessment of these anthropogenic pollutants.

Photo-fenton assisted reaction of dimethoate in aqueous solutions

The photo-Fenton reaction of an organophosphorus insecticide, dimethoate (O,O-dimethyl methylcarbamoylmethyl phosphorodithioate), was studied by following the identification and determination of the decomposition products and the total carbon removal rate. The reactions were performed in a batch recycle reactor, at room temperature, using UV radiation, H2O2 as oxidant, and FeCl3 x 6H2O as catalyst. The oxidation results were determined with a total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer and ion chromatography. The presence of reaction products was identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Apart from the sulfate, phosphate, and ammonium ions, the presence of dimethyl phosphite, N-methyl-acetamide, and formic acid was also detected. Excess of H2O2 concentration did not influence the reaction rate. The expression for the total carbon removal was assessed and the TOC removal rate constants were calculated.

UV-light induced mineralization of organic matter bound chlorine in Lake Bjän, Sweden--a laboratory study

Surface water and aqueous solutions of isolated organic matter from a humic rich lake in southern Sweden were exposed to artificial UV radiation to investigate the UV light induced influence on organic matter bound chlorine in natural systems. It was found that the photodegradation of organic matter bound chlorine was more pronounced than the photodegradation of organic carbon. After 120 h of irradiation of the isolated organic matter, only 35% of the initial organochlorine was still in the solution compared to about 70% of the dissolved organic carbon (DOC). A similar result was obtained for unfractionated surface water. Furthermore, our results indicate that the loss of organic chlorine was mainly due to a mineralization of organic chlorine into chloride ions. The total decrease of organic chlorine after 120 h was 32 microg Cl(org) l(-1), of which the major part disappeared in the initial irradiation phase. A similar increase was observed in the chloride concentration (34 microg Cl(-) l(-1)).

Stability studies on the cyanobacterial nicotinic alkaloid anatoxin-A

Anatoxin-a (ANTX-a) is a potent nicotinic cholinergic bicyclic secondary amine produced by some toxigenic strains of Anabaena spp. cyanobacteria (LD50 = 0.20-0.25 mg/kg i.p., mouse). Studies were undertaken to examine the effects of sunlight, pH, oxygen, and copper and iron, known catalysts of nitrogen oxidation, on the stability of ANTX-a. Photolysis of this extremely potent toxin was demonstrated under conditions resembling those which occur naturally. First-order decay kinetics of ANTX-a in sunlight was both pH and light intensity dependent. In the solutions examined, which represented expected biological conditions, the half-life of ANTX-a was on the order of 1-2 hr. This compares to half-lives on the order of several days in the absence of sunlight, even in the presence of metal ions. Mouse bioassays indicate that the breakdown products of ANTX-a, by both mechanisms, are inactive. Sunlight photolysis is concluded to be a possible important detoxification route of ANTX-a.