Phylogenetic classification of Cordyceps and the clavicipitaceous fungi

Insights into the methods for separation and chromatographic determination of nucleotides/nucleosides in Cordyceps spp

Cordyceps genus is entomopathogenic mushrooms that have traditionally been used in ethnomedicine in Asian countries. Nucleosides (Ns), nucleotide(Nt), Nucleobases (Nb) and their analogues play a critically physiological role and have a great potential in drug development, such as pentostatin and cordycepin (COR). Due to their significance bioactivity, several Nt/Ns were used as markers for quality evaluation for medicinal Cordyceps, including adenosine, inosine, guanosine, uridine and COR. Among them, COR is the most considerable adenosine analogue, exhibiting significant therapeutic potential and has many intracellular targets. Nt/Ns contains polar compounds and the phosphate groups of Nt deprotonate and carry negative charges with a broad range of pH values. Recent years, various advanced methods of extraction and separation, and nanomaterials have been developed to extract, isolate and determine these molecules, such as ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) for the extraction, the solid phase extraction (SPE) methods (microextraction SPE (SPME), magnetic SPE (MSPE), and unique SPE materials based on the boronate affinity for the separation, and chromatography methods employing ultraviolet (UV), fluorescence, MS detection and electrospray ionization (ESI), along with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ ionization (MALDI) for the determination. COR derived from adenosine and its structure is very similar to that of 2'-deoxyadenosine (2'-dA) and adenosine, resulting in an incorrect identification, which will influence its therapeutic effects. Therefore, this review primarily focused on the characteristics of Nt/Ns, the advanced methods, strategies, nanomaterials for extracting and determining Nt/Ns (COR in particular) in Cordyceps spp, as well as the methods for distinguishing COR from its structure analogs.

Pyricularia oryzae enhances Streptomyces griseus growth via non-volatile alkaline metabolites

Chemical compounds that affect microbial interactions have attracted wide interest. In this study, Streptomyces griseus showed enhanced growth when cocultured with the rice blast fungus Pyricularia oryzae on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. An improvement in S. griseus growth was observed before contact with P. oryzae, and no growth-promoting effect was observed when the growth medium between the two microorganisms was separated. These results suggested that the chemicals produced by P. oryzae diffused through the medium and were not volatile. A PDA plate supplemented with phenol red showed that the pH of the area surrounding P. oryzae increased. The area with increased pH promoted S. griseus growth, suggesting that the alkaline compounds produced by P. oryzae were involved in this growth stimulation. In contrast, coculture with the soilborne plant pathogen Fusarium oxysporum and entomopathogenic fungus Cordyceps tenuipes did not promote S. griseus growth. Furthermore, DL-α-Difluoromethylornithine, a polyamine biosynthesis inhibitor, prevented the increase in pH and growth promotion of S. griseus by P. oryzae. These results indicated that P. oryzae increased pH by producing a polyamine.

Mitogenomics, phylogeny and morphology reveal two new entomopathogenic species of Ophiocordyceps (Ophiocordycipitaceae, Hypocreales) from south-western China

Ophiocordyceps encompasses over 300 species, demonstrating a wide range of morphological features, hosts and habitats within its species diversity. In this study, two novel species in Ophiocordyceps were revealed parasitising Hepialidae larva buried in soil. Ophiocordycepsalbastroma was morphologically characterised by white stromata, solitary and cylindrical conidiogenous cells and smooth ovoid or ellipsoidal conidia. Ophiocordycepsnigristroma was characterised by woody and dark brown stromata, monophialidic, swollen base and lageniform conidiogenous cells and smooth fusiform or oval conidia. The two new species formed a separate clade, respectively, based on the phylogenetic analyses of a combined dataset including nrSSU, nrLSU, rpb1, rpb2, and tef-1α, as well as a dataset of mitochondrial 14 protein coding genes (PCGs). They were all closely grouped with O.sinensis. The mitochondrial genomes of them were first reported. Their mitogenomes were all typical of circular molecules, with positive AT and GC skew, similar GC content, similar genetic composition, similar codon usage and conservative gene positions. However, the length of the mitogenomes varied. Changes in the length of the genes were the leading cause of changes in the length of mitochondrial genome of Ophiocordyceps. The discovery and identification of new Ophiocordyceps species and analysis their mitochondrial genomes may serve as foundations for phylogeny and diversity research within the genus Ophiocordyceps.

Integrative taxonomy of Metarhizium anisopliae species complex, based on phylogenomics combined with morphometrics, metabolomics, and virulence data

Metarhizium anisopliae (Clavicipitaceae, Hypocreales) is a globally distributed entomopathogenic fungus, which has been largely studied and used in agriculture for its potent entomopathogenicity. Since its taxonomic establishment as a member of Metarhizium, many closely related taxa have been described with highly similar morphology (cryptic species). A holotype specimen of M. anisopliae is not extant, and the ex-neotype strain (CBS 130.71) does not form a monophyletic clade with other strains, up to now, recognized as M. anisopliae sensu stricto. In this study, we have conducted an integrative taxonomic treatment of M. anisopliae sensu lato by including the ex-neotype strain of M. anisopliae, other unknown strains from our collections identified as M. anisopliae s. lat., as well as other known species that have been previously delimited as closely related but distinct to M. anisopliae. By including whole-genome sequencing, morphometric analysis, LC-MS based metabolomics, and virulence assays, we have demonstrated that M. anisopliae s. str. should also include M. lepidiotae (synonym), and that M. anisopliae s. str. differentiates from the other species of the complex by its metabolome and less severe entomopathogenicity. New taxa, namely M. hybridum, M. neoanisopliae and M. parapingshaense spp. nov., are proposed. The novel taxa proposed here have strong phylogenomics support, corroborated by fine-scale differences in the length/width of conidia/phialides, while the metabolomics and virulence data still largely overlap. We have also demonstrated via population genomics data the existence of local clonal lineages, particularly the one corresponding to the persistence of a biocontrol candidate strain that has been used in the field application for three years. This study showcases the utility of combining various data sources for accurate delimitation of species within an important group of fungal biocontrol agents against pest insects.

Survey of potential fungal antagonists of Coffee Leaf Rust (Hemileia vastatrix) on Coffea arabica in Hawai'i, USA

Hemileia vastatrix, causal agent of coffee leaf rust (CLR), is an aggressive pathogen of coffee plants worldwide. Conventional fungicides play a major role in the suppression of this disease, but a recent shift toward eco-friendly farming practices has occurred and additional novel, effective, and sustainable strategies for CLR control are needed. Naturally occurring fungal antagonists could be well-positioned to meet this demand, but these fungi need to be isolated and tested for efficacy to identify organisms with potential. In this study, a survey of fungi associated with CLR lesions in four districts of Hawai'i Island, HI, USA (Kona, Ka'ū, Hāmākua, and Hilo) was conducted. Coffee leaves infected with CLR were collected from 22 locations and over 600 lesions were plated on ½ APDA and CTC 4T media. DNA was extracted from purified isolates and the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) was sequenced and analyzed by BLASTn. In total, 194 isolates comprising 50 taxa were recovered. Several of the genera are known antagonists of CLR or other plant pathogens, including Simplicillium, Akanthomyces, Cladosporium, Fusarium, and Clonostachys. The wide diversity of fungi associated with CLR lesions provide a wealth of possibilities for identifying potential CLR antagonists that could serve as a valuable tool for coffee farmers as part of an integrated pest management plan.

Analysis of Metabolic Profiles and Antioxidant Activity of Chinese Cordyceps, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, and Paecilomyces hepiali Based on Untargeted Metabolomics

Chinese cordyceps (GL) is a traditional medicinal fungus, with Ophiocordyceps sinensis (O. sinensis, BL) and Paecilomyces hepiali (P. hepiali, JSB) being fungi isolated from wild Chinese cordyceps. These three species share similar chemical composition and pharmacological effects. Existing studies have primarily compared the metabolites of Chinese cordyceps and O. sinensis, overlooking the assessment of antioxidant capacity in Chinese cordyceps, P. hepiali, and O. sinensis. In this study, LC-MS/MS was employed to analyze metabolites in GL, JSB, and BL. Utilizing principal component analysis (PCA), supervised orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), it was observed that the majority of differential metabolites (DMs) primarily accumulated in organic acids and derivatives, lipids and lipid-like molecules, and organoheterocyclic compounds. Antioxidant activity analysis indicated that GL exhibited the higher 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging ability (DPPH•, scavenging rate is 81.87 ± 0.97%), hydroxyl free radical scavenging capacity (•OH, scavenging rate is 98.10 ± 0.60%), and superoxide anion radical scavenging capacity (O2•-, scavenging rate is 69.74 ± 4.36%), while JSB demonstrated the higher FRAP total antioxidant capacity of 8.26 μmol Trolox/g (p < 0.05). Correlation analysis revealed a positive correlation between DMs (fatty acyls and amino acids) and DPPH•, FRAP, •OH, and O2•- (p < 0.05). Additionally, glycerophospholipid DMs were found to be positively correlated with FRAP (p < 0.05). Through KEGG pathway analysis, it was determined that the accumulation of DMs in pathways such as cutin, suberine and wax biosynthesis has a higher impact on influencing the antioxidant activity of the samples. These results shed light on the antioxidant capacity and metabolic characteristics of Chinese cordyceps and its substitutes and offer valuable insights into how different DMs impact the strength of antioxidant activity, aiding in the advancement and application of Chinese cordyceps and its substitutes.

Metarhizium caribense sp. nov., a Novel Species of Entomopathogenic Metarhizium Fungi Associated with Weevils Impairing Coffee, Sugar Cane and Sweet Potato Cultivation

(1) Background: Insect pathogenic fungi of the genus Metarhizium are under study and in application as highly solicited, more eco-system friendly substitutes for chemical insecticides in many countries and in different agricultural contexts. In Cuba and Florida, Metarhizium strains have previously been isolated from economically important coffee and sugar cane pests. (2) Methods: Unambiguous species delineation within the Metarhizium anisopliae species complex is methodologically challenging. Recently, a species-discriminating PCR approach has been developed based on ribosomal intergenic spacer (rIGS) sequences that covered the prominent four "PARB" species within the complex. This approach is combined here with further genetic markers and is extended to a further species. (3) Results: Metarhizium isolates from Cuba, found to be more naturally associated with the coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, were morphologically, microscopically and molecular taxonomically characterized. Multilocus sequence analysis based on 5TEF, MzIGS3 and rIGS markers delineated these weevil-associated strains from all previously established Metarhizium species. (4) Conclusions: The isolates under study represent a new fungal taxon proposed to be designated Metarhizium caribense. The rIGS-based species-discriminating diagnostic PCR is a suitable tool for the identification of new Metarhizium species and can be productively combined to approaches using further genetic markers.

Metarhiziumpuerense (Hypocreales, Clavicipitaceae): a new species from Yunnan, south-western China

Background

As a genus within the Clavicipitaceae, Metarhizium exhibits rich morphological and ecological diversity, with a wide distribution and a variety of hosts. Currently, sixty-eight species of Metarhizium have been described.

New information

A new species of Metarhizium, M.puerense (Hong Yu bis), was described in Pu'er City, Yunnan Province, south-western China. Based on morphological characteristics and multilocus phylogenetic analyses, Metarhiziumpuerense was confirmed to be phylogenetically related to M.album, but was clearly separated and formed a distinct branch. In contrast, the host of Metarhiziumalbum was plants and leafhoppers and that lepidopteran larvae were the host of M.puerense. The diagnostic features of M.puerense were solitary to multiple stromata and smooth-walled, cylindrical with rounded apices conidia.

Mutations and Differential Transcription of Mating-Type and Pheromone Receptor Genes in Hirsutella sinensis and the Natural Cordyceps sinensis Insect-Fungi Complex

Sexual reproduction in ascomycetes is controlled by the mating-type (MAT) locus. (Pseudo)homothallic reproduction has been hypothesized on the basis of genetic data from Hirsutella sinensis (Genotype #1 of Ophiocordyceps sinensis). However, the differential occurrence and differential transcription of mating-type genes in the MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 idiomorphs were found in the genome and transcriptome assemblies of H. sinensis, and the introns of the MAT1-2-1 transcript were alternatively spliced with an unspliced intron I that contains stop codons. These findings reveal that O. sinensis reproduction is controlled at the genetic, transcriptional, and coupled transcriptional-translational levels. This study revealed that mutant mating proteins could potentially have various secondary structures. Differential occurrence and transcription of the a-/α-pheromone receptor genes were also found in H. sinensis. The data were inconsistent with self-fertilization under (pseudo)homothallism but suggest the self-sterility of H. sinensis and the requirement of mating partners to achieve O. sinensis sexual outcrossing under heterothallism or hybridization. Although consistent occurrence and transcription of the mating-type genes of both the MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 idiomorphs have been reported in natural and cultivated Cordyceps sinensis insect-fungi complexes, the mutant MAT1-1-1 and α-pheromone receptor transcripts in natural C. sinensis result in N-terminal or middle-truncated proteins with significantly altered overall hydrophobicity and secondary structures of the proteins, suggesting heterogeneous fungal source(s) of the proteins and hybridization reproduction because of the co-occurrence of multiple genomically independent genotypes of O. sinensis and >90 fungal species in natural C. sinensis.

Expansion of the multi-locus gene alignment approach to improve identification of the fungal species Alternaria alternata

Alternaria alternata is part of a genus comprised of over 600 different species that occur all over the world and cause damage to humans, plants and thereby to the economy. Yet, even though some species are causing tremendous issues, the past years have shown that assigning newly found isolates to known species was rather inconsistent. Most identifications are usually done on the basis of spore morphology, chemotype and molecular markers. In this work we used strains isolated from the wild as well as commercial strains of the DSMZ (German collection of microorganisms and cell cultures) as a reference, to show, that the variation within the Alternaria alternata species is comparable to the variation between different species of the genus Alternaria in regards to spore morphology and chemotype. We compared the different methods of identification and discerned the concatenation of multiple molecular markers as the deciding factor for better identification. Up until this point, usually a concatenation of two or three traditional molecular markers was used. Some of those markers being stronger some weaker. We show that the concatenation of five molecular markers improves the likeliness of a correct assignment, thus a better distinction between the different Alternaria species.

Cordyceps cateniannulata: An endophyte of coffee, a parasite of coffee leaf rust and a pathogen of coffee pests

Here, we report on a Cordyceps species entering into a multi-trophic, multi-kingdom association. Cordyceps cateniannulata, isolated from the stem of wild Coffea arabica in Ethiopia, is shown to function as an endophyte, a mycoparasite and an entomopathogen. A detailed polyphasic taxonomic study, including a multilocus phylogenetic analysis, confirmed its identity. An emended description of C. cateniannulata is provided herein. Previously, this species was known as a pathogen of various insect hosts in both the Old and New World. The endophytic status of C. cateniannulata was confirmed by re-isolating it from inoculated coffee plants. Inoculation studies have further shown that C. cateniannulata is a mycoparasite of Hemileia vastatrix, as well as an entomopathogen of major coffee pests; infecting and killing Hypothenemus hampei and Leucoptera coffeella. This is the first record of C. cateniannulata from Africa, as well as an endophyte and a mycoparasite. The implications for its use as a biocontrol agent are discussed.

Bdelloid rotifers deploy horizontally acquired biosynthetic genes against a fungal pathogen

Coevolutionary antagonism generates relentless selection that can favour genetic exchange, including transfer of antibiotic synthesis and resistance genes among bacteria, and sexual recombination of disease resistance alleles in eukaryotes. We report an unusual link between biological conflict and DNA transfer in bdelloid rotifers, microscopic animals whose genomes show elevated levels of horizontal gene transfer from non-metazoan taxa. When rotifers were challenged with a fungal pathogen, horizontally acquired genes were over twice as likely to be upregulated as other genes - a stronger enrichment than observed for abiotic stressors. Among hundreds of upregulated genes, the most markedly overrepresented were clusters resembling bacterial polyketide and nonribosomal peptide synthetases that produce antibiotics. Upregulation of these clusters in a pathogen-resistant rotifer species was nearly ten times stronger than in a susceptible species. By acquiring, domesticating, and expressing non-metazoan biosynthetic pathways, bdelloids may have evolved to resist natural enemies using antimicrobial mechanisms absent from other animals.

Polysaccharides as Quality Marker to Rapid Profile for Ophiocordyceps sinensis by PXRD

BACKGROUND

Ophiocordyceps sinensis has long been recognized as a mysterious and valuable traditional Chinese medicine but there has been little research on quality markers for O. sinensis.

PURPOSE

This study looked into the potential of using powder X-ray diffractometry (PXRD) to analyze polysaccharides as a quality marker for O. sinensis.

STUDY DESIGN

There were 16 different habitats of O. sinensis collected in Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Tibet. In addition, five different types of Cordyceps species were collected. The characteristic diffraction peaks of O. sinensis were determined and then matched with the characteristic diffraction peaks of intracellular polysaccharides obtained from O. sinensis to determine the attribution relationship of the characteristic diffraction peaks.

METHODS

O. sinensis powder's X-ray diffraction pattern is determined by its composition, microcrystalline crystal structure, intramolecular bonding mechanism, and molecular configuration. After fractionation and alcohol precipitation of crude intracellular polysaccharide, mycelium crude intracellular polysaccharide (MCP) and fruiting body crude intracellular polysaccharide (FCP) were obtained and the fingerprint of O. sinensis was identified by the specific characteristic peaks of the X-ray diffraction pattern from intracellular polysaccharide.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the PXRD patterns of different populations of O. sinensis were overlaid well with 18 characteristic diffraction peaks obtained by microcrystalline diffraction. Moreover, the powder diffractograms as a fingerprint provided a practical identification of O. sinensis from other Cordyceps species. In addition, we detected that the powder diffractograms of intracellular polysaccharide MCP and MCP75 could be coupled with the PXRD of O. sinensis. Specifically, 18 characteristic diffraction peaks were identified as coming from MCP and MCP75 according to those interplanar crystal spacing, which matched well with those of PXRD of O. sinensis.

CONCLUSIONS

PXRD spectra combined with an updated multivariable discriminant model were found to be an efficient and sensitive method for O. sinensis quality control. According to the findings of this study, PXRD should be further investigated for quality control assessments and plant extract selection trials.

Multi-locus molecular phylogenetic analysis reveals two new species of Amphichorda (Bionectriaceae, Hypocreales)

Amphichorda has been previously accepted as a member of the Cordycipitaceae and currently it is considered a member of the Bionectriaceae. The substrates of Amphichorda were complex and varied, being mainly animal faeces. This study reports two new species of Amphichorda from Yunnan Province in south-western China. Based on the five-gene (nrSSU, nrLSU, tef-1α, rpb1 and rpb2) sequence and ITS data phylogenetic analysis, two new species, namely A.excrementa and A.kunmingensis, are proposed and a detailed description of the new species is provided. Amphichordaexcrementa and A.kunmingensis were isolated from animal faeces in the park. The morphological characteristics of two novel species and seven known species in Amphichorda are also compared.

What are the 100 most cited fungal genera?

The global diversity of fungi has been estimated between 2 to 11 million species, of which only about 155 000 have been named. Most fungi are invisible to the unaided eye, but they represent a major component of biodiversity on our planet, and play essential ecological roles, supporting life as we know it. Although approximately 20 000 fungal genera are presently recognised, the ecology of most remains undetermined. Despite all this diversity, the mycological community actively researches some fungal genera more commonly than others. This poses an interesting question: why have some fungal genera impacted mycology and related fields more than others? To address this issue, we conducted a bibliometric analysis to identify the top 100 most cited fungal genera. A thorough database search of the Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed was performed to establish which genera are most cited. The most cited 10 genera are Saccharomyces, Candida, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Botrytis, Pichia, Cryptococcus and Alternaria. Case studies are presented for the 100 most cited genera with general background, notes on their ecology and economic significance and important research advances. This paper provides a historic overview of scientific research of these genera and the prospect for further research. Citation: Bhunjun CS, Chen YJ, Phukhamsakda C, Boekhout T, Groenewald JZ, McKenzie EHC, Francisco EC, Frisvad JC, Groenewald M, Hurdeal VG, Luangsa-ard J, Perrone G, Visagie CM, Bai FY, Błaszkowski J, Braun U, de Souza FA, de Queiroz MB, Dutta AK, Gonkhom D, Goto BT, Guarnaccia V, Hagen F, Houbraken J, Lachance MA, Li JJ, Luo KY, Magurno F, Mongkolsamrit S, Robert V, Roy N, Tibpromma S, Wanasinghe DN, Wang DQ, Wei DP, Zhao CL, Aiphuk W, Ajayi-Oyetunde O, Arantes TD, Araujo JC, Begerow D, Bakhshi M, Barbosa RN, Behrens FH, Bensch K, Bezerra JDP, Bilański P, Bradley CA, Bubner B, Burgess TI, Buyck B, Čadež N, Cai L, Calaça FJS, Campbell LJ, Chaverri P, Chen YY, Chethana KWT, Coetzee B, Costa MM, Chen Q, Custódio FA, Dai YC, Damm U, de Azevedo Santiago ALCM, De Miccolis Angelini RM, Dijksterhuis J, Dissanayake AJ, Doilom M, Dong W, Alvarez-Duarte E, Fischer M, Gajanayake AJ, Gené J, Gomdola D, Gomes AAM, Hausner G, He MQ, Hou L, Iturrieta-González I, Jami F, Jankowiak R, Jayawardena RS, Kandemir H, Kiss L, Kobmoo N, Kowalski T, Landi L, Lin CG, Liu JK, Liu XB, Loizides M, Luangharn T, Maharachchikumbura SSN, Makhathini Mkhwanazi GJ, Manawasinghe IS, Marin-Felix Y, McTaggart AR, Moreau PA, Morozova OV, Mostert L, Osiewacz HD, Pem D, Phookamsak R, Pollastro S, Pordel A, Poyntner C, Phillips AJL, Phonemany M, Promputtha I, Rathnayaka AR, Rodrigues AM, Romanazzi G, Rothmann L, Salgado-Salazar C, Sandoval-Denis M, Saupe SJ, Scholler M, Scott P, Shivas RG, Silar P, Souza-Motta CM, Silva-Filho AGS, Spies CFJ, Stchigel AM, Sterflinger K, Summerbell RC, Svetasheva TY, Takamatsu S, Theelen B, Theodoro RC, Thines M, Thongklang N, Torres R, Turchetti B, van den Brule T, Wang XW, Wartchow F, Welti S, Wijesinghe SN, Wu F, Xu R, Yang ZL, Yilmaz N, Yurkov A, Zhao L, Zhao RL, Zhou N, Hyde KD, Crous PW (2024). What are the 100 most cited fungal genera? Studies in Mycology 108: 1-411. doi: 10.3114/sim.2024.108.01.

Morphological and Phylogenetic Analyses Reveal Three New Species of Entomopathogenic Fungi Belonging to Clavicipitaceae (Hypocreales, Ascomycota)

This study aims to report three new species of Conoideocrella and Moelleriella from Yunnan Province, Southwestern China. Species of Conoideocrella and Moelleriella parasitize scale insects (Coccidae and Lecaniidae, Hemiptera) and whiteflies (Aleyrodidae, Hemiptera). Based on the phylogenetic analyses of the three-gene nrLSU, tef-1α, and rpb1, it showed one new record species (Conoideocrella tenuis) and one new species (Conoideocrella fenshuilingensis sp. nov.) in the genus Conoideocrella, and two new species, i.e., Moelleriella longzhuensis sp. nov. and Moelleriella jinuoana sp. nov. in the genus Moelleriella. The three new species were each clustered into separate clades that distinguished themselves from one another. All of them were distinguishable from their allied species based on their morphology. Morphological descriptions, illustrations, and comparisons of the allied taxa of the four species are provided in the present paper. In addition, calculations of intraspecific and interspecific genetic distances were performed for Moelleriella and Conoideocrella.

Endolithic Fungal Diversity in Antarctic Oligocene Rock Samples Explored Using DNA Metabarcoding

In this study, we evaluated the fungal diversity present associated with cores of Oligocene rocks using a DNA metabarcoding approach. We detected 940,969 DNA reads grouped into 198 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) representing the phyla Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Mortierellomycota, Chytridiomycota, Mucoromycota, Rozellomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Monoblepharomycota, Zoopagomycota, Aphelidiomycota (Fungi) and the fungal-like Oomycota (Stramenopila), in rank abundance order. Pseudogymnoascus pannorum, Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., Cladosporium sp., Aspergillaceae sp. and Diaporthaceae sp. were assessed to be dominant taxa, with 22 fungal ASVs displaying intermediate abundance and 170 being minor components of the assigned fungal diversity. The data obtained displayed high diversity indices, while rarefaction indicated that the majority of the diversity was detected. However, the diversity indices varied between the cores analysed. The endolithic fungal community detected using a metabarcoding approach in the Oligocene rock samples examined contains a rich and complex mycobiome comprising taxa with different lifestyles, comparable with the diversity reported in recent studies of a range of Antarctic habitats. Due to the high fungal diversity detected, our results suggest the necessity of further research to develop strategies to isolate these fungi in culture for evolutionary, physiological, and biogeochemical studies, and to assess their potential role in biotechnological applications.

The anti-fatigue and sleep-aiding effects vary significantly among different recipes containing Ganoderma lucidum extracts

Aims

This study aims to delve into the anti-fatigue and sleep-aiding effects of various formulations containing Ganoderma lucidum extracts.

Materials and methods

PGB [incorporating Ganoderma lucidum extract (GE), broken Ganoderma lucidum spore powder (GB) and Paecilomyces hepiali mycelium (PH)] and GBS [composed of GE, GB, and Ganoderma sinense powder (GS)] were chosen as representative recipes for this study. Mice were treated with these recipes or key components of Ganoderma lucidum for 14 consecutive days. Subsequently, a weight-bearing swimming experiment was conducted to assess the mice's exhaustion time and evaluate the anti-fatigue properties of the recipes. Sleep-aiding effects were analyzed by measuring the sleep latency and duration. Furthermore, levels of blood lactic acid, serum urea nitrogen, hepatic glycogen, muscle glycogen, and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured in the livers and muscles.

Key findings

The anti-fatigue abilities of the tested mice were significantly improved after treatment with PGB and their sleep quality improved as well with GBS treatment. PGB treatment for 14 days could significantly prolong the exhaustion time in weight-bearing swimming (from 10.1 ± 0.5 min to 15.2 ± 1.3 min). Meanwhile, glycogen levels in the livers and muscles were significantly increased, while the levels of serum lactic acid, serum urea nitrogen, and MDA in the livers and muscles were significantly decreased. In contrast, mice treated with GBS for 14 days experienced significant improvements in sleep quality, with shortened sleep latency (from 6.8 ± 0.7 min to 4.2 ± 0.4 min), extended sleep duration (from 88.3 ± 1.4 min to 152.5 ± 9.3 min), and decreased muscle MDA levels. These results indicated that Ganoderma lucidum extracts can be used for anti-fatigue and or aid in sleeping, depending on how they are prepared and administered.

Significance

This study provides experimental evidence and theoretical basis for the development of Ganoderma lucidum recipes that are specifically designed to help with anti-fatigue and sleep.

Genomic and Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Biosynthesis Network of Cordycepin in Cordyceps militaris

Cordycepin is the primary active compound of Cordyceps militaris. However, the definitive genetic mechanism governing cordycepin synthesis in fruiting body growth and development remains elusive, necessitating further investigation. This study consists of 64 C. militaris strains collected from northeast China. The high-yielding cordycepin strain CMS19 was selected for the analysis of cordycepin production and the genetic basis of cordycepin anabolism. First, the whole-genome sequencing of CMS19 yielded a final size of 30.96 Mb with 8 contigs and 9781 protein-coding genes. The genome component revealed the presence of four additional secondary metabolite gene clusters compared with other published genomes, suggesting the potential for the production of new natural products. The analyses of evolutionary and genetic differentiation revealed a close relationship between C. militaris and Beauveria bassiana. The population of strains distributed in northeast China exhibited the significant genetic variation. Finally, functional genes associated with cordycepin synthesis were identified using a combination of genomic and transcriptomic analyses. A large number of functional genes associated with energy and purine metabolism were significantly enriched, facilitating the reconstruction of a hypothetical cordycepin metabolic pathway. Therefore, our speculation of the cordycepin metabolism pathway involved 24 genes initiating from the glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathways, progressing through purine metabolism, and culminating in the core region of cordycepin synthesis. These findings could offer fundamental support for scientific utilizations of C. militaris germplasm resources and standardized cultivation for cordycepin production.

The composition and function of bacterial communities in Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) changed dramatically with infected fungi: A new potential to culture Cordyceps cicadae

Cordyceps cicadae (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) is a renowned entomopathogenic fungus used as herbal medicine in China. However, wild C. cicadae resources have been threatened by heavy harvesting. We hypothesised that Bombyx mori L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) could be a new alternative to cultivate C. cicadae due to the low cost of rearing. Bacterial communities are crucial for the formation of Cordyceps and for promoting the production of metabolites. To better understand the bacterial community structure associated with Cordyceps, three Claviciptaceae fungi were used to explore the pathogenicity of the silkworms. Here, fifth-instar silkworms were infected with C. cicadae, Cordyceps cateniannulata (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) and Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae). Subsequently, we applied high-throughput sequencing to explore the composition of bacterial communities in silkworms. Our results showed that all three fungi were highly pathogenic to silkworms, which suggests that silkworms have the potential to cultivate Cordyceps. After fungal infection, the diversity of bacterial communities in silkworms decreased significantly, and the abundance of Staphylococcus increased in mummified larvae, which may play a role in the death process when the host suffers infection by entomopathogenic fungi. Furthermore, there were high similarities in the bacterial community composition and function in the C. cicadae and C. cateniannulata infected samples, and the phylogenetic analysis suggested that these similarities may be related to the fungal phylogenetic relationship. Our findings reveal that infection with different entomopathogenic fungi affects the composition and function of bacterial communities in silkworms and that the bacterial species associated with Cordyceps are primarily host dependent, while fungal infection affects bacterial abundance.

Verification of In Vitro Anticancer Activity and Bioactive Compounds in Cordyceps Militaris-Infused Sweet Potato Shochu Spirits

Many liqueurs, including spirits infused with botanicals, are crafted not only for their taste and flavor but also for potential medicinal benefits. However, the scientific evidence supporting their medicinal effects remains limited. This study aims to verify in vitro anticancer activity and bioactive compounds in shochu spirits infused with Cordyceps militaris, a Chinese medicine. The results revealed that a bioactive fraction was eluted from the spirit extract with 40% ethanol. The infusion time impacted the inhibitory effect of the spirit extract on the proliferation of colon cancer-derived cell line HCT-116 cells, and a 21-day infusion showed the strongest inhibitory effect. Furthermore, the spirit extract was separated into four fractions, A-D, by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and Fractions B, C, and D, but not A, exerted the effects of proliferation inhibition and apoptotic induction of HCT-116 cells and HL-60 cells. Furthermore, Fractions B, C, and D were, respectively, identified as adenosine, cordycepin, and N6-(2-hydroxyethyl)-adenosine (HEA) by comprehensive chemical analyses, including proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). To better understand the bioactivity mechanisms of cordycepin and HEA, the agonist and antagonist tests of the A3 adenosine receptor (A3AR) were performed. Cell viability was suppressed by cordycepin, and HEA was restored by the A3AR antagonist MR1523, suggesting that cordycepin and HEA possibly acted as agonists to activate A3ARs to inhibit cell proliferation. Molecular docking simulations revealed that both adenosine and cordycepin bound to the same pocket site of A3ARs, while HEA exhibited a different binding pattern, supporting a possible explanation for the difference in their bioactivity. Taken together, the present study demonstrated that cordycepin and HEA were major bioactive ingredients in Cordyceps militaries-infused sweet potato shochu spirits, which contributed to the in vitro anticancer activity.

Conservation of Endangered Cordyceps sinensis Through Artificial Cultivation Strategies of C. militaris, an Alternate

Cordyceps, an entomopathogenic fungus belonging to the Ascomycota phylum, is a familiar remedial mushroom that is extensively used in the traditional medicinal system, especially in South Asian nations. The significance of this genus' members in a range of therapeutic and biotechnological applications has long been acknowledged. The exceedingly valuable fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Cordyceps sinensis) is found in the alpine meadows of Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet, and India, where it is severely harvested. Driven by market demand and ecological concerns, the study highlights challenges in natural C. sinensis collection and emphasizes the shift towards sustainable artificial cultivation methods. This in-depth review navigates Cordyceps cultivation strategies, focusing on C. sinensis and the viable alternative, C. militaris. The escalating demand for Cordyceps fruiting bodies and bioactive compounds prompts a shift toward sustainable artificial cultivation. While solid-state fermentation on brown rice remains a traditional method, liquid culture, especially submerged and surface/static techniques, emerges as a key industrial approach, offering shorter cultivation periods and enhanced cordycepin production. The review accentuates the adaptability and scalability of liquid culture, providing valuable insights for large-scale Cordyceps production. The future prospects of Cordyceps cultivation require a holistic approach, combining scientific understanding, technological innovation, and sustainable practices to meet the demand for bioactive metabolites while ensuring the conservation of natural Cordyceps populations.

Biological characteristics of Cordyceps militaris single mating-type strains

Cordyceps militaris has been extensively cultivated as a model cordyceps species for commercial purposes. Nevertheless, the problems related to strain degeneration and breeding technologies remain unresolved. This study assessed the physiology and fertility traits of six C. militaris strains with distinct origins and characteristics, focusing on single mating-type strains. The results demonstrated that the three identified strains (CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02) were single mating-type possessing only one mating-type gene (MAT1-1). In contrast, the other three strains (CMXF07, CMXF09, and CMMS05) were the dual mating type. The MAT1-1 strains sourced from CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02 consistently produced sporocarps but failed to generate ascospores. However, when paired with MAT1-2 strains, the MAT1-1 strains with slender fruiting bodies and normal morphology were fertile. The hyphal growth rate of single mating-type strains (CMDB01, CMSY01, and CMJB02) typically surpassed that of dual mating-type strains (CMXF07, CMXF09, and CMMS05). The growth rates of MAT1-2 and MAT1-1 strains were proportional to their ratios, such that a single mating-type strain with a higher ratio exhibited an increased growth rate. As C. militaris matured, the adenosine content decreased. In summary, the C. militaris strains that consistently produce sporocarps and have a single mating type are highly promising for production and breeding.

Genomic comparative analysis of Ophiocordyceps unilateralis sensu lato

Ophiocordyceps unilateralis sensu lato is a common pathogenic fungus of ants. A new species, O. fusiformispora, was described based on morphology and phylogenetic evidence from five genes (SSU, LSU, TEF1α, RPB1, and RPB2). The whole genomes of O. fusiformispora, O. contiispora, O. subtiliphialida, O. satoi, O. flabellata, O. acroasca, and O. camponoti-leonardi were sequenced and annotated and compared with whole genome sequences of other species in O. unilateralis sensu lato. The basic genome-wide characteristics of the 12 species showed that the related species had similar GC content and genome size. AntiSMASH and local BLAST analyses revealed that the number and types of putative SM BGCs, NPPS, PKS, and hybrid PKS-NRPS domains for the 12 species differed significantly among different species in the same genus. The putative BGC of five compounds, namely, NG-391, lucilactaene, higginsianin B, pyripyropene A, and pyranonigrin E were excavated. NG-391 and lucilactaene were 7-desmethyl analogs of fusarin C. Furthermore, the 12 genomes had common domains, such as KS-AT-DH-MT-ER-KR-ACP and SAT-KS-AT-PT-ACP-ACP-Te. The ML and BI trees of SAT-KS-AT-PT-ACP-ACP-Te were highly consistent with the multigene phylogenetic tree in the 12 species. This study provided a method to obtain the living culture of O. unilateralis sensu lato species and its asexual formed on the basis of living culture, which was of great value for further study of O. unilateralis sensu lato species in the future, and also laid a foundation for further analysis of secondary metabolites of O. unilateralis sensu lato.

NAD-Driven Sirtuin Activation by Cordyceps sinensis Extract: Exploring the Adaptogenic Potential to Promote Skin Longevity

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in utilizing Traditional Chinese Medicine principles and natural bioactive compounds to combat age-related ailments and enhance longevity. A Cordyceps sinensis mycelium hydroethanolic extract (CsEx), which was standardized in cordycepin and adenosine using UHPLC-DAD, was investigated for its adaptogenic properties using in vitro assays and a double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial involving 40 subjects. The CsEx demonstrated activity at a concentration of 0.0006%, significantly increasing sirtuin expression (SirT1: +33%, SirT3: +10%, SirT6: +72%, vs. CTR, p < 0.05) and NAD+ synthesis in HaCat cells (+20% vs. CTR, p < 0.001). Moreover, the CsEx boosted ATP production by 68% in skin cells, correlating with higher skin energy values (+52.0% at D28, p < 0.01) in the clinical trial. Additionally, CsEx notably reduced cytosolic reactive oxygen species (ROS) by 30% in HaCaT cells (p < 0.05) and enhanced collagen production both in vitro (+69% vs. CTR, p < 0.01) and in vivo (+10% vs. D0, p < 0.01), confirmed by ultrasound examination. Furthermore, CsEx's stimulation of fibroblasts, coupled with its antioxidant and energizing properties, led to a significant reduction in wrinkles by 28.0% (D28, p < 0.001). This study underscores Cordyceps sinensis hydroethanolic extract's potential in regulating skin cell energy metabolism and positively influencing the mechanisms associated with skin longevity control.

Morpho-molecular study of entomopathogenic fungi associated with citrus orchard pests in Northern Iran

Entomopathogenic fungi play a significant role in regulating insect populations in nature and have potential applications in pest management strategies in different regions. Citrus spp. are among the important horticultural products in northern Iran, and the orchards are affected by different insect pests, especially mealybugs. This study aimed to isolate and identify entomopathogenic fungi associated with citrus orchard pests in northern Iran, focusing on Akanthomyces and Lecanicillium species on mealybugs. Through the samples collected from different regions within Guilan province, 12 fungal isolates were collected and identified based on the combination of morphological characteristics and molecular data. Akanthomyces lecanii, A. muscarius, Engyodontium rectidentatum, Lecanicillium aphanocladii and Lecanicillium rasoulzarei sp. nov. were identified. Of these, A. muscarius on Lepidosaphes sp., E. rectidentatum on Coccidae, and L. aphanocladii on Tetranychus urticae are reported as new fungal-host records from Iran. Moreover, a new species, Lecanicillium rasoulzarei, is illustrated, described, and compared with closely related species.

Defensive fungal symbiosis on insect hindlegs

Tympanal organs as "insect ears" have evolved repeatedly. Dinidorid stinkbugs were reported to possess a conspicuous tympanal organ on female's hindlegs. Here we report an unexpected discovery that the stinkbug's "tympanal organ" is actually a novel symbiotic organ. The stinkbug's "tympanum" is not membranous but a porous cuticle, where each pore connects to glandular secretory cells. In reproductive females, the hindleg organ is covered with fungal hyphae growing out of the pores. Upon oviposition, the females skillfully transfer the fungi from the organ to the eggs. The eggs are quickly covered with hyphae and physically protected against wasp parasitism. The fungi are mostly benign Cordycipitaceae entomopathogens and show considerable diversity among insect individuals and populations, indicating environmental acquisition of specific fungal associates. These results uncover a novel external fungal symbiosis in which host's elaborate morphological, physiological and behavioral specializations underpin the selective recruitment of benign entomopathogens for a defensive purpose.

Molecular phylogeny and morphology reveal two new entomopathogenic species of Ophiocordyceps (Ophiocordycipitaceae, Hypocreales) parasitic on termites from China

Two new termite-pathogenic species, Ophiocordycepsglobiperitheciata and O.longistipes, are described from Yunnan Province, China. Six-locus (ITS, nrSSU, nrLSU, tef-1α, rpb1 and rpb2) phylogenetic analyses in combination with morphological observations were employed to characterize these two species. Phylogenetically, O.globiperitheciata is most closely related to Hirsutellacryptosclerotium and O.communis, whereas O.longistipes shares a sister relationship with O.fusiformis. However, O.globiperitheciata differs from H.cryptosclerotium by parasitizing Blattodea and producing clavate, unbifurcated stromata. Ophiocordycepsglobiperitheciata is distinguished from O.communis by multiple stromata, shorter asci and ascospores. Ophiocordycepslongistipes differs from O.fusiformis in producing larger stromata, perithecia, asci and ascospores, as well as smaller citriform or oval conidia. Morphological descriptions of the two new species and a dichotomous key to the 19 termite-pathogenic Ophiocordyceps species are presented.

Metabolite profiling and antioxidant capacity of natural Ophiocordyceps gracilis and its cultures using LC-MS/MS-based metabolomics: Comparison with Ophiocordyceps sinensis

INTRODUCTION

Ophiocordyceps gracilis is an entomopathogenic fungus and a precious traditional Chinese medicine with similar medicinal properties to Ophiocordyceps sinensis. However, information on the metabolite profiles of natural O. gracilis and its cultures is lacking, which limits their utilization.

OBJECTIVE

The metabolic variations and antioxidant activities of O. gracilis cultures and natural O. gracilis were analyzed to evaluate the nutritional and medicinal value of O. gracilis and its cultures.

METHOD

The metabolite profiles of O. gracilis cultures (fruiting bodies and aerial mycelia), natural O. gracilis, and natural O. sinensis were compared by LC-MS/MS coupled with multivariate data analysis. Furthermore, their antioxidant activities were evaluated based on their DPPH• , ABTS•+ , and • OH scavenging abilities.

RESULTS

A total of 612 metabolites were identified, and the metabolic compositions of the four Cordyceps samples were similar, with differences observed in the levels of some metabolites. There were 126 differential metabolites between natural O. gracilis and natural O. sinensis, among which fatty acids, carbohydrates, and secondary metabolites are predominant in natural O. gracilis. Furthermore, 116 differential metabolites between O. gracilis cultures and natural Cordyceps were identified, with generally higher levels in O. gracilis cultures than in natural Cordyceps. O. gracilis cultivated fruiting bodies exhibited the strongest antioxidant capacity among Cordyceps samples. Additionally, 46 primary and 24 secondary differential metabolites contribute to antioxidant activities.

CONCLUSION

This study provides a reference for the application of natural O. gracilis and its cultures in functional food and medicine from the perspective of metabolites and antioxidant capacity.

A review on polysaccharide biosynthesis in Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is an edible parasitic fungus with medicinal properties. Its bioactive polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various metabolic and biological activities, including antitumor, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. These properties make C. militaris-derived polysaccharides a promising candidate for future development. Recent advancements in microbial fermentation technology have enabled successful laboratory cultivation and extraction of these polysaccharides. These polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various biological activities, such as immunostimulatory, antioxidant, antitumor, hypolipidemic, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. This review aims to summarize the structure and production mechanisms of polysaccharides from C. militaris, covering extraction methods, key genes and pathways involved in biosynthesis, and fermentation factors that influence yield and activity. Furthermore, the future potential and challenges of utilizing polysaccharides in the development of health foods and pharmaceuticals are addressed. This review serves as a valuable reference in the fields of food and medicine, and provides a theoretical foundation for the study of polysaccharides.

Two new species and one new combination of Ophiocordyceps (Hypocreales, Ophiocordycipitaceae) in Guizhou

Ophiocordyceps is the largest genus in Ophiocordycipitaceae and has a broad distribution with high diversity in subtropical and tropical regions. In this study, two new species, pathogenic on lepidopteran larvae are introduced, based on morphological observation and molecular phylogeny. Ophiocordycepsfenggangensissp. nov. is characterised by having fibrous, stalked stroma with a sterile tip, immersed perithecia, cylindrical asci and filiform ascospores disarticulating into secondary spores. Ophiocordycepsliangiisp. nov. has the characteristics of fibrous, brown, stipitate, filiform stroma, superficial perithecia, cylindrical asci and cylindrical-filiform, non-disarticulating ascospores. A new combination Ophiocordycepsmusicaudata (syn. Cordycepsmusicaudata) is established employing molecular analysis and morphological characteristics. Ophiocordycepsmusicaudata is characterised by wiry, stipitate, solitary, paired to multiple stromata, yellowish, branched fertile part, brown stipe, immersed perithecia, cylindrical asci and cylindrical-filiform, non-disarticulating ascospores.

Origin traceability of Cordyceps sinensis based on trace elements and stable isotope fingerprints

Cordyceps sinensis is a kind of valuable Chinese herbal medicine, and its quality and price depend on the place of origin. Building a traceability system for Cordyceps sinensis products is an effective way to protect Cordyceps sinensis geographical indication products and consumers. In this study, concentrations of 45 trace elements and stable C, N, and Pb isotopes were used to distinguish Cordyceps sinensis samples from different habitats and different varieties (natural and artificial). The results showed that there were significant differences in the isotope compositions of N and Pb and trace elements contents in the Cordyceps sinensis samples from different sources. Stepwise discriminant analysis was used to select effective traceability indicators, and three discriminant models were successfully established. A combination of Co, Sr, Cu, Tl, and Zr indexes was selected to distinguish the naturally grown samples from the artificially cultivated ones, with an overall cross-validation correctness rate of 90.0 %; while a combination of As, Cu, Rb, Tl, W, and Zr indexes was adopted to distinguish the naturally grown samples from different regions, with a corresponding 100.0 % overall cross-validation correctness rate. To simultaneously distinguish samples between natural and artificial and between different regions, a combination of As, Cu, Rb, Tl, U, W, and δ15N indexes was employed, with an overall cross-validation correctness rate of 89.3 %.

Molecular phylogenetics of the Ophiocordyceps sinensis-species complex lineage (Ascomycota, Hypocreales), with the discovery of new species and predictions of species distribution

Ophiocordyceps sinensis is a famous traditional Chinese medicine adapted to the alpine environment of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and adjacent regions. Clarification of the species diversity of Ophiocordyceps sinensis and its relatives could expand the traditional medicinal resources and provide insights into the speciation and adaptation. The study is prompted by the discovery of a new species, O. megala, described here from a biodiversity hotspot in the Hengduan Mountains, China. Combined morphological, ecological, and phylogenetic evidence supports its distinctiveness from O. sinensis, O. xuefengensis, and O. macroacicularis. Additionally, based on the phylogenetic construction of Ophiocordyceps, a special clade was focused phylogenetically on the more closely related O. sinensis complex, which was defined as the O. sinensis- species complex lineage. A total of 10 species were currently confirmed in this lineage. We made a comprehensive comparison of the sexual/asexual morphological structures among this species complex, distinguishing their common and distinctive features. Furthermore, using the method of species distribution modelling, we studied the species ocurrences in relation to climatic, edaphic, and altitudinal variables for the eight species in the O. sinensis-species complex, and determined that their potential distribution could extend from the southeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau to the Xuefeng Mountains without isolating barrier. Thus, the biodiversity corridor hypothesis was proposed around the O. sinensis-species complex. Our study highlights the phylogeny, species diversity, and suitable distribution of the O. sinensis-species complex lineage, which should have a positive implication for the resource discovery and adaptive evolution of this unique and valuable group.

Endosymbiotic Fungal Diversity and Dynamics of the Brown Planthopper across Developmental Stages, Tissues, and Sexes Revealed Using Circular Consensus Sequencing

Endosymbiotic fungi play an important role in the growth and development of insects. Understanding the endosymbiont communities hosted by the brown planthopper (BPH; Nilaparvata lugens Stål), the most destructive pest in rice, is a prerequisite for controlling BPH rice infestations. However, the endosymbiont diversity and dynamics of the BPH remain poorly studied. Here, we used circular consensus sequencing (CCS) to obtain 87,131 OTUs (operational taxonomic units), which annotated 730 species of endosymbiotic fungi in the various developmental stages and tissues. We found that three yeast-like symbionts (YLSs), Polycephalomyces prolificus, Ophiocordyceps heteropoda, and Hirsutella proturicola, were dominant in almost all samples, which was especially pronounced in instar nymphs 4-5, female adults, and the fat bodies of female and male adult BPH. Interestingly, honeydew as the only in vitro sample had a unique community structure. Various diversity indices might indicate the different activity of endosymbionts in these stages and tissues. The biomarkers analyzed using LEfSe suggested some special functions of samples at different developmental stages of growth and the active functions of specific tissues in different sexes. Finally, we found that the incidence of occurrence of three species of Malassezia and Fusarium sp. was higher in males than in females in all comparison groups. In summary, our study provides a comprehensive survey of symbiotic fungi in the BPH, which complements the previous research on YLSs. These results offer new theoretical insights and practical implications for novel pest management strategies to understand the BPH-microbe symbiosis and devise effective pest control strategies.

Species diversity and major host/substrate associations of the genus Akanthomyces (Hypocreales, Cordycipitaceae)

Akanthomyces, a group of fungi with rich morphological and ecological diversity in Cordycipitaceae (Ascomycota, Hypocreales), has a wide distribution amongst diverse habitats. By surveying arthropod-pathogenic fungi in China and Southeast Asia over the last six years, nine Akanthomyces spp. were found and identified. Five of these were shown to represent four known species and an undetermined species of Akanthomyces. Four of these were new species and they were named A.kunmingensis and A.subaraneicola from China, A.laosensis from Laos and A.pseudonoctuidarum from Thailand. The new species were described and illustrated according to the morphological characteristics and molecular data. Akanthomycesaraneogenus, which was isolated from spiders from different regions in China, Thailand and Vietnam, was described as a newly-recorded species from Thailand and Vietnam. The phylogenetic positions of the nine species were evaluated, based on phylogenetic inferences according to five loci, namely, ITS, nrLSU, TEF, RPB1 and RPB2. In this study, we reviewed the research progress achieved for Akanthomyces regarding its taxonomy, species diversity, geographic distribution and major host/substrate associations. The morphological characteristics of 35 species in Akanthomyces, including four novel species and 31 known taxa, were also compared.

Filtration effect of Cordyceps chanhua mycoderm on bacteria and its transport function on nitrogen

IMPORTANCE

During the natural growth of Cordyceps chanhua, it will form a mycoderm structure specialized from hyphae. We found that the bacterial membrane of C. chanhua not only filters environmental bacteria but also absorbs and transports nitrogen elements inside and outside the body of C. chanhua. These findings are of great significance for understanding the stable mechanism of the internal microbial community maintained by C. chanhua and how C. chanhua maintains its own nutritional balance. In addition, this study also enriched our understanding of the differences in bacterial community composition and related bacterial community functions of C. chanhua at different growth stages, which is of great value for understanding the environmental adaptation mechanism, the element distribution network, and the changing process of symbiotic microbial system after Cordyceps fungi infected the host. At the same time, it can also provide a theoretical basis for some important ecological imitation cultivation technology of Cordyceps fungi.

Four novel Pleurocordyceps (Polycephalomycetaceae) species from China

Entomopathogenic fungi comprise an ecologically important group of specialized pathogens infecting other fungi, invertebrates, and plants. These fungi are species-rich with high diversity and broad distribution worldwide. The majority of entomopathogenic fungi belong to clavicipitoids, which consist of the hypocrealean families, Clavicipitaceae, Cordycipitaceae, Ophiocordycipitaceae, and Polycephalomycetaceae. The latter is a newly established entomopathogenic family that recently separated from the family Ophiocordycipitaceae to accommodate the genera, Perennicordyceps, Pleurocordyceps, and Polycephalomyces. In recent years, Polycephalomycetaceae has been enriched with parasitic and hyperparasitic fungi. With 16 species spread across China, Ecuador, Japan, and Thailand, Pleurocordyceps is the most speciose genus in the family. In this study, we expand the number of taxa in the genus by introducing four new Pleurocordyceps species from China, namely, P. clavisynnema, P. multisynnema, P. neoagarica, and P. sanduensis. We provide detailed descriptions and illustrations and infer genus-level phylogenies based on a combined 6-loci gene sequence dataset comprising the internal transcribed spacer gene region (ITS), small subunit ribosomal RNA gene region (SSU), large subunit rRNA gene region (LSU), translation elongation factor 1-alpha gene region (TEF-1α), RNA polymerase II largest subunit gene region (RPB1), and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2). This study contributes to knowledge with regard to the diversity of Pleurocordyceps specifically and entomopathogenic Hypocreales more broadly.

New species and new combinations in the genus Paraisaria (Hypocreales, Ophiocordycipitaceae) from the U.S.A., supported by polyphasic analysis

Molecular phylogenetic and chemical analyses, and morphological characterization of collections of North American Paraisaria specimens support the description of two new species and two new combinations for known species. P.cascadensissp. nov. is a pathogen of Cyphoderris (Orthoptera) from the Pacific Northwest USA and P.pseudoheteropodasp. nov. is a pathogen of cicadae (Hemiptera) from the Southeast USA. New combinations are made for Ophiocordycepsinsignis and O.monticola based on morphological, ecological, and chemical study. A new cyclopeptide family proved indispensable in providing chemotaxonomic markers for resolving species in degraded herbarium specimens for which DNA sequencing is intractable. This approach enabled the critical linkage of a 142-year-old type specimen to a phylogenetic clade. The diversity of Paraisaria in North America and the utility of chemotaxonomy for the genus are discussed.

High-level production of cordycepin by the xylose-utilising Cordyceps militaris strain 147 in an optimised medium

Cordycepin is an important active metabolite of Cordyceps militaris. Xylose, an attractive feedstock for producing chemicals through microbial fermentation, cannot be effectively utilised by many reported C. militaris strains. Herein, a xylose-utilising C. militaris strain 147 produced the highest level of cordycepin (3.03 g/L) in xylose culture. Xylose, alanine, and ammonium citrate were determined as the main affecting factors on the cordycepin production using a Plackett-Burman design. The combination of these factors was optimised using response surface methodology, and the maximal 6.54 g/L of cordycepin was produced by the fungus in the optimal medium. Transcriptome analysis revealed that xylose utilisation upregulated the transcriptional levels of genes participating in purine and energy metabolisms in the fungus, which may facilitate the formation of precursors for cordycepin biosynthesis. This investigation provides new insights into the efficient production of cordycepin and is conducive to the valorisation of biomass rich in xylose.

New mycoparasitic species in the genera Niveomyces and Pseudoniveomycesgen. nov. (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), with sporothrix-like asexual morphs, from Thailand

Four new species of the genus Niveomyces are described from Thailand. They were found as mycoparasites on: Ophiocordyceps infecting flies (Diptera) for Niveomyces albus; ants (Hymenoptera) for N. formicidarum; and leafhoppers (Hemiptera) for N. hirsutellae and N. multisynnematus. A new genus, Pseudoniveomyces with two species: Pseudoniveo. blattae (type species), parasitic on Ophiocordyceps infecting cockroaches, and Pseudoniveo. arachnovorum, found on a spider egg sac, are also described. These fungi share a common feature which is a sporothrix-like asexual morph. Based on our molecular data, Sporothrix insectorum is shown to be affiliated to the genus Niveomyces, and thus a new combination N. insectorum comb. nov. is proposed. Niveomyces coronatus, N. formicidarum and N. insectorum formed the N. coronatus species complex found on ant-pathogenic Ophiocordyceps from different continents. Pseudoniveomyces species are distinguished from Niveomyces spp. based on the presence of fusoid macroconidia in culture and a red pigment diffused in the medium, resembling to Gibellula and Hevansia. The molecular phylogenetic analyses also confirmed its generic status. The host/substrates associated with the genera within Cordycipitaceae were mapped onto the phylogeny to demonstrate that mycoparasitism also evolved independently multiple times in this family. Citation: Kobmoo N, Tasanathai K, Araújo JPM, Noisripoom W, Thanakitpipattana D, Mongkolsamrit S, Himaman W, Houbraken J, Luangsa-ard JJ (2023). New mycoparasitic species in the genera Niveomyces and Pseudoniveomyces gen. nov. (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae), with sporothrix-like asexual morphs, from Thailand. Fungal Systematics and Evolution 12: 91-110. doi: 10.3114/fuse.2023.12.07.

The transcriptome of the entomopathogenic fungus Culicinomyces clavisporus contains an ortholog of the insecticidal ribotoxin Hirsutellin

The entomopathogenic fungus Culicinomyces clavisporus is known to infect and kill mosquito larvae and therefore has been seen as a potential biological control agent against disease vector mosquitoes. Whereas most fungal entomopathogens infect hosts by penetrating the external cuticle, C. clavisporus initiates infection through ingestion (per os). This unique infection strategy suggests that the C. clavisporus genome may be mined for novel pathogenicity factors with potential for vector control. To this end, an Isoseq-based transcriptome analysis was initiated, and resulted in a total of 3,512,145 sequences, with an average length of 1,732 bp. Transcripts assembly and annotation suggested that the C. clavisporus transcriptome lacked the cuticle-degrading proteins that have been associated with other entomopathogenic fungi, supporting the per os pathogenicity process. Furthermore, mining of the sequence data unexpectedly revealed C. clavisporus transcripts homologous to the Hirsutellin toxin. Comparative sequence analyses indicated that the C. clavisporus Hirsutellin predicted protein has retained the canonical molecular features that have been associated with the ribotoxic and insecticidal properties of the original toxin isolated from Hirsutella thompsonii. The identification of an Hirsutellin ortholog in C. clavisporus was supported by phylogenetic analyses demonstrating that Culicinomyces and Hirsutella were closely related genera in the Ophiocordycipitaceae family. Validation of the mosquitocidal activity of this novel C. clavisporus protein has yet to be performed but may help position Hirsutellin orthologs as prime candidates for the development of alternative biocontrol approaches complementing the current toolbox of vector mosquito management strategies.

Morphology, phylogeny and host specificity of two new Ophiocordyceps species belonging to the "zombie-ant fungi" clade (Ophiocordycipitaceae, Hypocreales)

Species of the genus Ophiocordyceps, which include species able to manipulate the behaviour of ants, are known as the "zombie-ant fungi" and have attracted much attention over the last decade. They are widespread within tropical, subtropical and even temperate forests worldwide, with relatively few reports from subtropical monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest. Fungal specimens have been collected from China, occurring on ants and producing hirsutella-like anamorphs. Based on a combination of morphological characters, phylogenetic analyses (LSU, SSU, TEF1a, RPB1 and RPB2) and ecological data, two new species, Ophiocordycepstortuosa and O.ansiformis, are identified and proposed herein. Ophiocordycepstortuosa and O.ansiformis are recorded on the same species of Colobopsis ant, based on phylogenetic analyses (COI), which may be sharing the same host. Ophiocordycepstortuosa and O.ansiformis share the morphological character of producing lanceolate ascospores. They have typical characteristics distinguished from other species. The ascospore of O.tortuosa are tortuously arranged in the ascus and the ascospore of O.ansiformis have a structure like a handle-shape in the middle. Our molecular data also indicate that O.tortuosa and O.ansiformis are clearly distinct from other species.

Species Discrimination within the Metarhizium PARB Clade: Ribosomal Intergenic Spacer (rIGS)-Based Diagnostic PCR and Single Marker Taxonomy

(1) Background: The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae sensu lato forms a species complex, comprising a tight cluster made up of four species, namely M. anisopliae sensu stricto, M. pinghaense, M. robertsii and M. brunneum. Unambiguous species delineation within this "PARB clade" that enables both the taxonomic assignment of new isolates and the identification of potentially new species is highly solicited. (2) Methods: Species-discriminating primer pairs targeting the ribosomal intergenic spacer (rIGS) sequence were designed and a diagnostic PCR protocol established. A partial rIGS sequence, referred to as rIGS-ID800, was introduced as a molecular taxonomic marker for PARB species delineation. (3) Results: PARB species from a validation strain set not implied in primer design were clearly discriminated using the diagnostic PCR protocol developed. Using rIGS-ID800 as a single sequence taxonomic marker gave rise to a higher resolution and statistically better supported delineation of PARB clade species. (4) Conclusions: Reliable species discrimination within the Metarhizium PARB clade is possible through both sequencing-independent diagnostic PCR and sequencing-dependent single marker comparison, both based on the rIGS marker.

Phylogeny and species delimitations in the economically, medically, and ecologically important genus Samsoniella (Cordycipitaceae, Hypocreales)

Samsoniella is a ubiquitous genus of cosmopolitan arthropod-pathogenic fungi in the family Cordycipitaceae. The fungi have economic, medicinal, and ecological importance. Prior taxonomic studies of these fungi relied predominantly on phylogenetic inferences from five loci, namely, the nuclear ribosomal small and large subunits (nr SSU and nr LSU), the 3' portion of translation elongation factor 1 alpha (3P_TEF), and RNA polymerase II subunits 1 and 2 (RPB1 and RPB2). Despite many new species being described, not all of the recognized species inside this group formed well-supported clades. Thus, the search for new markers appropriate for molecular phylogenetic analysis of Samsoniella remains a challenging problem. In our study, we selected the internal transcribed spacer regions of the rDNA (ITS rDNA) and seven gene regions, namely, 3P_TEF, the 5' portion of translation elongation factor 1 alpha (5P_TEF), RPB1, RPB2, γ-actin (ACT), β-tubulin (TUB), and a gene encoding a minichromosome maintenance protein (MCM7), as candidate markers for species identification. Genetic divergence comparisons showed that the ITS, RPB2, ACT, and TUB sequences provided little valuable information with which to separate Samsoniella spp. In contrast, sequence data for 3P_TEF, 5P_TEF, RPB1, and MCM7 provided good resolution of Samsoniella species. The phylogenetic tree inferred from combined data (5P_TEF + 3P_TEF + RPB1 + MCM7) showed well-supported clades for Samsoniella and allowed for the delimitation of 26 species in this genus. The other two species (S.formicae and S.lepidopterorum) were not evaluated, as they had abundant missing data.

Effects of MAT1-2 Spore Ratios on Fruiting Body Formation and Degeneration in the Heterothallic Fungus Cordyceps militaris

The medicinal mushroom Cordyceps militaris is widely exploited in traditional medicine and nutraceuticals in Asian countries. However, fruiting body production in C. militaris is facing degeneration through cultivation batches, and the molecular mechanism of this phenomenon remains unclear. This study showed that fruiting body formation in three different C. militaris strains, namely G12, B12, and HQ1, severely declined after three successive culturing generations using the spore isolation method. PCR analyses revealed that these strains exist as heterokaryons and possess both the mating-type loci, MAT1-1 and MAT1-2. Further, monokaryotic isolates carrying MAT1-1 or MAT1-2 were successfully separated from the fruiting bodies of all three heterokaryotic strains. A spore combination of the MAT1-1 monokaryotic isolate and the MAT1-2 monokaryotic isolate promoted fruiting body formation, while the single monokaryotic isolates could not do that themselves. Notably, we found that changes in ratios of the MAT1-2 spores strongly influenced fruiting body formation in these strains. When the ratios of the MAT1-2 spores increased to more than 15 times compared to the MAT1-1 spores, the fruiting body formation decreased sharply. In contrast, when MAT1-1 spores were increased proportionally, fruiting body formation was only slightly reduced. Our study also proposes a new solution to mitigate the degeneration in the heterokaryotic C. militaris strains caused by successive culturing generations.

Transcriptome and Metabolome Analyses of Thitarodes xiaojinensis in Response to Ophiocordyceps sinensis Infection

Ophiocordyceps sinensis exhibits more than 5 months of vegetative growth in Thitarodes xiaojinensis hemocoel. The peculiar development process of O. sinensis has been elucidated through morphological observation and omics technology; however, little information has been reported regarding the changes that occur in the host T. xiaojinensis. The RNA sequencing data showed that when O. sinensis blastospores were in the proliferative stage, the greatest change in the infected larval fat body was the selectively upregulated immune recognition and antimicrobial peptide genes. When O. sinensis blastospores were in the stationary stage, the immune pathways of T. xiaojinensis reverted to normal levels, which coincides with the successful settlement of O. sinensis. Pathway enrichment analysis showed a higher expression of genes involved in energy metabolism pathway in this stage. Metabolomic analyses revealed a reduction of amino acids and lipids in hemolymph, but an upregulation of lipids in the fat body of the host larvae after O. sinensis infection. We present the first transcriptome integrated with the metabolome study of T. xiaojinensis infected by O. sinensis. It will improve our understanding of the interaction mechanisms between the host and entomopathogenic fungi, and facilitate future functional studies of genes and pathways involved in these interactions.

Two new species of Samsoniella (Cordycipitaceae, Hypocreales) from the Mayao River Valley, Guizhou, China

Samsoniella species have been often found in the forest habitat and rarely found in special karst eco-environments, such as Tiankeng, valleys and caves. In this research, eleven cordyceps specimens were collected from Mayao River Valley. A known species (S.haniana) and two new species (S.duyunensis and S.vallis) were established and described according to a multilocus phylogenetic analysis and morphological characteristics. Our results provide insight that the richness of Samsoniella species in karst eco-environments and further attention should be paid to entomopathogenic fungi in such habitats.

Study on species diversity of Akanthomyces (Cordycipitaceae, Hypocreales) in the Jinyun Mountains, Chongqing, China

Akanthomyces species have only been reported from Guizhou and Qinghai Province, with few reports from other regions in China. In this research, the species diversity of Akanthomyces in the Jinyun Mountains, Chongqing was investigated. Fourteen infected spider specimens were collected and two new species (A.bashanensis and A.beibeiensis) and a known species (A.tiankengensis) were established and described according to a multi-locus phylogenetic analysis and the morphological characteristics. Our results reveal abundant Akanthomyces specimens and three species were found at Jinyun Mountain. Due to its being an important kind of entomopathogenic fungi, further attention needs to be paid to the diversity of other entomopathogenic fungi in Chongqing, China.

Systematic analyses with genomic and metabolomic insights reveal a new species, Ophiocordyceps indica sp. nov. from treeline area of Indian Western Himalayan region

Ophiocordyceps is a species-rich genus in the order Hypocreales (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota) depicting a fascinating relationship between microbes and insects. In the present study, a new species, Ophiocordyceps indica sp. nov., is discovered infecting lepidopteran larvae from tree line locations (2,202-2,653 m AMSL) of the Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, Indian Western Himalayan region, using combinations of morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses. A phylogeny for Ophiocordyceps based on a combined multigene (nrSSU, nrLSU, tef-1α, and RPB1) dataset is provided, and its taxonomic status within Ophiocordycipitaceae is briefly discussed. Its genome size (~59 Mb) revealed 94% genetic similarity with O. sinensis; however, it differs from other extant Ophiocordyceps species based on morphological characteristics, molecular phylogenetic relationships, and genetic distance. O. indica is identified as the second homothallic species in the family Ophiocordycipitaceae, after O. sinensis. The presence of targeted marker components, viz. nucleosides (2,303.25 μg/g), amino acids (6.15%), mannitol (10.13%), and biological activity data, suggests it to be a new potential source of nutraceutical importance. Data generated around this economically important species will expand our understanding regarding the diversity of Ophiocordyceps-like taxa from new locations, thus providing new research avenues.

Mitochondrial genome of Cordyceps blackwelliae: organization, transcription, and evolutionary insights into Cordyceps

Cordyceps is a diverse genus of insect pathogenic fungi, with about 180 accepted species, including some well-known ones used as ethnic medicine and/or functional food. Nevertheless, mitogenomes are only available for four members of the genus. The current study reports the mitogenome of Cordyceps blackwelliae, a newly described entomopathogenic fungus. The 42,257-bp mitogenome of the fungus encoded genes typically found in fungal mitogenomes, and a total of 14 introns inserted into seven genes, including cob (1 intron), cox1 (4), cox3 (3), nad1 (1), nad4 (1), nad5 (1), and rnl (3). RNA-Seq analysis revealed differential expression of mitochondrial genes and supported annotations resulting from in silico analysis. There was clear evidence for polycistronic transcription and alternative splicing of mitochondrial genes. Comparison among mitogenomes of five different Cordyceps species (i.e., C. blackwelliae, C. chanhua, C. militaris, C. pruinosa, and C. tenuipes) revealed a high synteny, with mitogenome size expansion correlating with intron insertions. Different mitochondrial protein-coding genes showed variable degrees of genetic differentiation among these species, but they were all under purifying selection. Mitochondrial phylogeny based on either nucleotide or amino acid sequences confirmed the taxonomic position of C. blackwelliae in Cordycipitaceae, clustering together with C. chanhua. This study promotes our understanding of fungal evolution in Cordyceps.