Manufacture of Low-Na White Soft Brined Cheese: Effect of NaCl Substitution with a Combination of Na-K Salts on Proximate Composition, Mineral Content, Microstructure, and Sensory Acceptance

All over the world, especially in Western societies, table salt intake that is inordinately higher than the acceptable level has been observed. An excess of Na in the human diet, mostly from processed foods, is becoming the "number one killer", leading to increased blood pressure. Therefore, the food industry is faced with a need to reduce Na in human nutrition in an effort to raise public health protection to a higher level. In this study, a commercially available combination of Na/K salts (COMB) at different concentrations was used as a NaCl substitute in the production of a modified, healthier, Na-reduced cheese. Samples of the modified low-Na white soft-brined cheese (WSBC) were produced by adding four different concentrations of COMB to production lots PL-1 to PL-4, and the control (CON) samples were prepared by salting with the usual, non-reduced concentration of NaCl. The effects of NaCl replacement on the physical-chemical parameters, major- and micro-elements, and microstructural and sensory properties of the WSBC were investigated. The obtained results indicated that there was no significant influence on the ash content, pH, and aw. The Na and K levels differed among treatments (p < 0.001). The lowest Na level in this study was recorded in PL-4 (only COMB was added) and was 334.80 ± 24.60 mg/100 g. According to the Na content, WSBC PL4 can be labeled with the nutrient claim "reduced amount of Na". A significant difference (p < 0.05) was noticed in overall acceptance between the CON and PL-4, with no statistically significant difference found amongst other WSBC production lots. The replacement of NaCl resulted in a slightly greater firmness of the WSBC. The results confirm the possibility of producing low-Na WSBC when optimal amounts of a suitable mineral salt are used as a substitute for NaCl, thus reducing the risk of high Na intake in the human body through the consumption of evaluated cheese.

A novel strategy for simultaneous reduction of salt and animal fat in burger using a taste contrast system based on double emulsion

The work investigated a taste contrast strategy to reduce the salt content in burgers by a novel design of water in gelled oil in water double emulsion (DE) as an animal fat replacer. Oleogelation reduced the particle size and improved emulsion viscosity, resulting in more emulsion stability than conventional DE. Moreover, oil gelation enhanced the encapsulation efficiency of salt. The partial substitution of the optimized DE incorporating salt within the W1 and cinnamaldehyde within the oil phase with animal fat in the burger successfully reduced salt content by up to 25% while maintaining the desired level of saltiness. The presence of cinnamaldehyde also increased oxidative stability and decreased color changes during storage. The replacement of DE and oleogel in burgers diminished cooking loss, while negatively affected the textural properties. Therefore, further optimization of this strategy could lead to healthier food formulations with reduced fat and salt content.

Application of Umami Tastants for Sodium Reduction in Food: An Evidence Analysis Center Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Sodium chloride intake far exceeds the guidelines from health and regulatory agencies. Acknowledging the positive relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure, interest in substances that assist in sodium reduction, while contributing a savory taste such as umami, are highly investigated.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this scoping review was to identify and characterize studies investigating umami tastants on sodium reduction in food, with the goal of informing future research.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted in Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid Embase, Ovid Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, EBSCO PsycInfo, PROSPERO, National Institutes of Health RePORTER, ClinicalTrials.gov, and the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and completed in March 2022 to identify peer-reviewed publications among adults (18 years and older) with interventions focusing on umami tastants to reduce sodium content.

RESULTS

The literature search identified 52 studies, among which monosodium glutamate was the most studied umami tastant or food. Furthermore, most of the research on umami was represented through cross-sectional sensory studies to determine acceptability of foods with part of the original sodium chloride replaced with umami tastants. Only 1 study investigated the use of an umami tastant on overall daily sodium intake.

CONCLUSIONS

To assist individuals in adhering to sodium reduction intake goals set forth by regulatory agencies and their guiding policies, these findings indicated that additional research on umami tastants, including systematic reviews and prospective trials, is warranted. In these prospective studies, both intermediate outcomes (ie, dietary pattern changes, daily dietary intake of sodium, and blood pressure) and hard outcomes (ie, incidence of hypertension or stroke, as well as cardiovascular composite outcomes) should be considered.

The Quality and Composition of Iranian Low-Salt UF-White Cheese

In cheese, the reduction of salt is still a challenging task, as sodium chloride exerts multiple and fundamental functions. Salt favors the drainage of the residual whey; enhances the taste and the aroma profile; regulates the texture, the final pH, and the water activity; and affects the microbial growth. Hence the impact of partial replacement of NaCl by KCl on the ripening characteristics of Iranian UF (ultrafiltration) cheese during storage was monitored. To produce low-salt cheese, different mixtures of UF white cheese were treated with NaCl : KCl ratios of (a) 3% NaCl (control), (b) 1.50% NaCl+1.50% KCl, (c) 1.00% NaCl+2.00% KCl, and (d) 0.75% NaCl+2.25% KCl by dry salting. ADV (acid degree value) results showed significant differences ( $P<0.05$ ) in all treatments after 15, 30, 40, and 50 days of ripening. No significant differences were observed in the GC (gas chromatography) results in the samples’ free fatty acid (FFA) profile except for C18 : 0 in all treatments. KCl did not affect the moisture, dry matter, fat, TN (total nitrogen)/dry matter, and WSN (water-soluble nitrogen) contents of cheeses considerably. The evaluation of force to fracture showed that there were significant differences ( $P<0.05$ ) between treatment (d) as a control cheese and treatments (b) and (c). Sensory evaluations showed as the concentration of KCl increased, the cheese gradually became less acceptable and treatments with higher potassium chloride content were crumblier and less firm. Results of the aroma evaluation of cheese samples showed that unlike acetaldehyde, ethanol, acetoin, and diacetyl amounts decreased significantly ( $P<0.05$ ) during the storage period. Results also indicated that a reduction of sodium by up to 50% did not significantly affect the quality and composition of Iranian low-salt UF-white cheese except for sensory evaluation, texture analysis, and aroma characteristics.

Determination of umami compounds in edible fungi and evaluation of salty enhancement effect of Antler fungus enzymatic hydrolysate

The demand for low-salt foods is increasing due to their health benefits. Umami is known to enhance salty, and a large amount of umami components have been identified in edible fungi. 5'-nucleotides and umami amino acids from nine species of edible fungi were quantified. The equal umami concentration (EUC) in nine edible fungi was within the range of 37.7-1317.72 g MSG/100 g, and umami intensity as determined by electronic tongue and sensory evaluation was within the range of 11.22-13.53 and 2.85-5.55, respectively. Antler fungus had the highest umami intensity. Umami amino acids and nucleotides could increase salty intensity of NaCl at medium and high concentrations. The enzymatic hydrolysate of Antler fungus at higher concentrations could more effectively enhance salty taste of NaCl at lower concentration. This synergistic effect between umami and salty indicates that Antler fungus can potentially be used as an ingredient in low-salt foods.

The Effect of Salt Reduction and Partial Substitution of NaCl by KCl on Physicochemical, Microbiological, and Sensorial Characteristics and Consumers' Acceptability of Semi-Hard and Hard Lactose-Free Cow's Milk Cheeses

Increasing consumer demand for healthier foods prompts the development of cheeses reduced in salt. The aim of his study was to assess the effect of reducing the level of sodium chloride (NaCl) and their partial substitution by potassium chloride (KCl) on the biochemical, microbiological, and sensorial characteristics and consumer's acceptability of semi-hard and hard lactose-free cow's milk cheeses. To improve the possible lower salty taste or the development of bitter taste, the addition to yeast extract, as a flavor enhancer, was also checked. Different brining times and brine conditions were tested to obtain a reduction of >25% of salt with respect to conventional cheese. Reduced-salt cheeses were elaborated by reducing half the salting time used in conventional cheeses, and a ratio of 60 Na⁺:40 K⁺ was used to reduce Na concentration in substituted cheeses. The results obtained in this study show that the reduction of salt by both methods in semi-hard and hard lactose-free cheeses could be an alternative for the production of healthier and sensorial acceptable cheeses, without significantly affecting their physicochemical characteristics. The addition of yeast extract, as a flavor enhancer, increased the free amino acids (FAAs) levels but decreased the acceptability of cheeses.

The Reduction of Salt in Different Cheese Categories: Recent Advances and Future Challenges

Public awareness about excessive sodium intake and nutrition claims related to salt content entail the need for food industries to carefully reconsider the composition and processing of high sodium foods. Although in some products the reformulation with alternative ingredients is commonly practiced, in cheese the reduction of salt is still a challenging task, as sodium chloride exerts multiple and fundamental functions. Salt favors the drainage of the residual whey, enhances the taste and the aroma profile, regulates the texture, the final pH, the water activity, and affects the microbial growth. Ultimately, salt content modulates the activity of starter and non-starter lactic acid bacteria (NSLAB) during cheese manufacturing and ripening, influencing the shelf-life. Any modification of the salting procedure, either by reducing the level of sodium chloride content or by replacing it with other salting agents, may affect the delicate equilibrium within the above-mentioned parameters, leading to changes in cheese quality. The decrease of Na content may be differently approached according to cheese type and technology (e.g., soft, semi-hard, hard, and mold-ripened cheeses). Accordingly, targeted strategies could be put in place to maintain the overall quality and safety of different cheeses categories.

Compendium of sodium reduction strategies in foods: A scoping review

In response to health concerns generated by increased sodium intake, many new approaches have been studied to reduce the sodium content in processed food. It has been suggested that reducing sodium in the food supply may be the most appropriate solution. The aim of this scoping review was to establish what sodium reduction strategies are effective in maintaining acceptable sensory qualities for various food industry applications. Studies that evaluate and report on the effectiveness of a sodium reduction strategy relevant to food and included outcomes detailing how the strategies were received by human subjects using sensory data are included, as well as book chapters, literature reviews, and patents focusing on sodium reduction strategies. Only those published in English and since 1970 were included. Literature was obtained through Scopus, PubMed, EBSCOhost, and ScienceDirect databases, whereas patents were obtained through US Patent Trademark Office, Google Patents, and PATENTSCOPE databases. Two-hundred and seventy-seven primary studies, 27 literature reviews, 10 book chapters, and 143 patents were selected for inclusion. Data extracted included details such as analytical methods, broad and specific treatment categories, significant outcomes, and limitations among other material. Sodium reduction methods were categorized as either salt removal, salt replacement, flavor modification, functional modification, or physical modification. Although salt removal and salt replacement were the majority of included studies, future research would benefit from combining methods from other categories while investigating the impact on sensory characteristics, technological aspects, and consumer perception of the strategy.

Effect of Partial Substitution of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) with Potassium Chloride (KCl) Coupled with High-Pressure Processing (HPP) on Physicochemical Properties and Volatile Compounds of Beef Sausage under Cold Storage at 4 °C

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of partial substitution of sodium chloride (NaCl) with potassium chloride (KCl) in combination with high-pressure processing (HPP) on the physicochemical properties and volatile compounds of beef sausage during cold storage at 4 °C. Significant differences were found in the volatile compounds of beef sausages with 0%, 25%, and 50% NaCl contents partially substituted with KCl subjected to 28 days of storage and were well-visualized by heat map analysis. A total of 75 volatile compounds were identified and quantified in the beef sausages at the end of 28 days of storage, including 12 aldehydes, 4 phenols, 2 ketones, 18 alcohols, 8 acids, 3 esters, 14 terpenes, and 14 alkanes. Thirteen compounds had low odor activity values (OAV) (OAV < 1); however, high OAV (OAV > 1) were obtained after partial substitution of NaCl by KCl at 25% and 50% with HPP treatment compared to the non-HPP treated samples. In addition, 50% NaCl substitution with KCl in conjunction with HPP treatments increased thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) by (0.46 ± 0.03 mg/MDA) compared with no HPP treatments. Replacement of 25% and 50% NaCl with KCl decreased TBARS by an average of 10.8% and 11.10%, respectively, compared to 100% NaCl coupled with HPP beef sausages. In summary, HPP and partial substitution of NaCl with KCl at 25% and 50% can be used to compensate for the reduction of NaCl in beef sausage by keeping the physical and flavor fraction at required levels.

Current Role of Nanotechnology Used in Food Processing Industry to Control Food Additives and Exploring Their Biochemical Mechanisms

BACKGROUND

With the advent of food additives centuries ago, the human race has found ways to improve and maintain the safety of utility, augment the taste, color, texture, nutritional value, and appearance of the food. Since the 19th century, when the science behind food spoilage was discerned, the use of food additives in food preservation has been increasing worldwide and at a fast pace to get along with modern lifestyles. Although food additives are thought to be used to benefit the food market, some of them are found to be associated with several health issues at an alarming rate. Studies are still going on regarding the mechanisms by which food additives affect public health. Therefore, an attempt has been made to find out the remedies by exploiting technologies that may convey new properties of food additives that can only enhance the quality of food without having any systemic side effects. Thus, this review focuses on the applications of nanotechnology in the production of nano-food additives and evaluates its success regarding reduction in the health-related hazards collaterally maintaining the food nutrient value.

METHODOLOGY

A thorough literature study was performed using scientific databases like PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science for determining the design of the study, and each article was checked for citation and referred to formulate the present review article.

CONCLUSION

Nanotechnology can be applied in the food processing industry to control the unregulated use of food additives and to intervene in the biochemical mechanisms at a cellular and physiological level for the ensuring safety of food products. The prospective of nano-additive of chemical origin could be useful to reduce risks of hazards related to human health that are caused majorly due to the invasion of food contaminants (either intentional or non-intentional) into food, though this area still needs scientific validation. Therefore, this review provides comprehensive knowledge on different facets of food contaminants and also serves as a platform of ideas for encountering health risk problems about the design of improved versions of nano-additives.

Sodium Reduction in Traditional Fermented Foods: Challenges, Strategies, and Perspectives

Sodium salt is a pivotal ingredient in traditional fermented foods, but its excessive consumption adversely affects human health, product quality, and production efficiency. Therefore, reducing sodium salt content in traditional fermented foods and developing low-sodium fermented foods have attracted increasing attention. Given the essential role of sodium salt in the safety and quality of fermented foods, appropriate approaches should be applied in the production of low-sodium fermented foods. In this review, the challenges of sodium reduction in traditional fermented foods are presented, including the possible growth of pathogenic bacteria, the formation of hazardous chemicals, flavor deficiency, and texture deterioration. Physical, chemical, and biological strategies are also discussed. This review provides references for improving the quality and safety of low-sodium fermented foods.

The mineral profile affects the coagulation pattern and cheese-making efficiency of bovine milk

Natural variations in milk minerals, their relationships, and their associations with the coagulation process and cheese-making traits present an opportunity for the differentiation of milk destined for high-quality natural products, such as traditional specialties or Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) cheeses. The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of the native contents of Ca, P, Na, K, and Mg on 18 traits describing traditional milk coagulation properties (MCP), curd firming over time (CF_t) equation parameters, cheese yield (CY) measures, and nutrient recoveries in the curd (REC) using models that either included or omitted the simultaneous effects of milk fat and casein contents. The results showed that, by including milk fat and casein and the minerals in the statistical model, we were able to determine the specific effects of each mineral on coagulation and cheese-making efficiency. In general, about two-thirds of the apparent effects of the minerals on MCP and the CF_t equation parameters are actually mediated by their association with milk composition, especially casein content, whereas only one-third of the effects are direct and independent of milk composition. In the case of cheese-making traits, the effects of the minerals were mediated only negligibly by their association with milk composition. High Ca content had a positive effect on the coagulation pattern and cheese-making traits, favoring water retention in the curd in particular. Phosphorus positively affected the cheese-making traits in that it was associated with an increase in CY in terms of curd solids, and in all the nutrient recovery traits. However, a very high P content in milk was associated with lower fat recovery in the curd. The variation in the Na content in milk only mildly affected coagulation, whereas with regard to cheese-making, protein recovery was negatively associated with high concentrations of this mineral. Potassium seemed not to be actively involved in coagulation and the cheese-making process. Magnesium content tended to slow coagulation and reduce CY measures. Further studies on the relationships of minerals with casein and protein fractions could deepen our knowledge of the role of all minerals in coagulation and the cheese-making process.

Microbial lipases and their industrial applications: a comprehensive review

Lipases are very versatile enzymes, and produced the attention of the several industrial processes. Lipase can be achieved from several sources, animal, vegetable, and microbiological. The uses of microbial lipase market is estimated to be USD 425.0 Million in 2018 and it is projected to reach USD 590.2 Million by 2023, growing at a CAGR of 6.8% from 2018. Microbial lipases (EC 3.1.1.3) catalyze the hydrolysis of long chain triglycerides. The microbial origins of lipase enzymes are logically dynamic and proficient also have an extensive range of industrial uses with the manufacturing of altered molecules. The unique lipase (triacylglycerol acyl hydrolase) enzymes catalyzed the hydrolysis, esterification and alcoholysis reactions. Immobilization has made the use of microbial lipases accomplish its best performance and hence suitable for several reactions and need to enhance aroma to the immobilization processes. Immobilized enzymes depend on the immobilization technique and the carrier type. The choice of the carrier concerns usually the biocompatibility, chemical and thermal stability, and insolubility under reaction conditions, capability of easy rejuvenation and reusability, as well as cost proficiency. Bacillus spp., Achromobacter spp., Alcaligenes spp., Arthrobacter spp., Pseudomonos spp., of bacteria and Penicillium spp., Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., of fungi are screened large scale for lipase production. Lipases as multipurpose biological catalyst has given a favorable vision in meeting the needs for several industries such as biodiesel, foods and drinks, leather, textile, detergents, pharmaceuticals and medicals. This review represents a discussion on microbial sources of lipases, immobilization methods increased productivity at market profitability and reduce logistical liability on the environment and user.

Dynamic aspects of salt reduction in tomato sauce by use of flavor enhancers and a bitter blocker

Several government agencies have established guidelines for the food industry to reduce sugar, fat, and salt in processed foods. The objective of this study was to determine the dynamic sensory profile of tomato sauce formulated with flavor enhancers, a bitter blocker and 50% sodium content reduction. The perception of consumers and a trained panel was explored. Consumers performed temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) and temporal acceptance (TA) while the trained panel performed time-intensity analysis (TI). TA indicated that flavor enhancers improve initial acceptance of a sample but that its masking effect weakens 30 s after ingestion. TI showed that despite promoting salty equivalence, substitute salts were not able to completely suppress the bitter taste characteristic of potassium chloride and the addition of lysine as a bitter blocker was the least effective strategy. In TDS the bitter taste was not dominant in any of the samples. However, the presence of unusual flavors/tastes to the consumers like metallic and umami seems to have interfered negatively in the evaluation of the flavors. Flavor enhancers have been widely used to reformulate processed foods in order to reduce sodium content, preserving sensory acceptance. This study provides information on the dynamic behavior of different salt substitutes.

Reduced-sodium cheeses: Implications of reducing sodium chloride on cheese quality and safety

Sodium chloride (NaCl) universally well-known as table salt is an ancient food additive, which is broadly used to increase the storage stability and the palatability of foods. Though, in recent decades, use of table salt in foods is a major concern among the health agencies of the world owing to ill effects of sodium (Na) that are mostly linked to hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. As a result, food scientists are working to decrease the sodium content in food either by decreasing the rate of NaCl addition or by partial or full replacement of NaCl with other suitable salts like potassium chloride (KCl), calcium chloride (CaCl₂ ), or magnesium chloride (MgCl₂ ). However, in cheese, salt reduction is difficult to accomplish owing to its multifaceted role in cheese making. Considering the significant contribution in dietary salt intake (DSI) from cheese, researchers across the globe are exploring various technical interventions to develop reduced-sodium cheeses (RSCs) without jeopardizing the quality and safety of cheeses. Thus, the purpose of this study is to provide an insight of NaCl reduction on sensory, physicochemical, and technofunctional attributes of RSCs with an aim to explore various strategies for salt reduction without affecting the cheese quality and safety. The relationship between salt reduction and survival of pathogenic and spoilage-causing microorganisms and growth of RSCs microflora is also discussed. Based on the understanding of conceptual and applied information on the complex changes that occur in the development of RSCs, the quality and safety of RSCs can be accomplished effectively in order to reduce the DSI from cheese.

Investigation on the Intrinsic Potential of Using Potassium Chloride for Partially Replacing NaCl in Kimchi and the Effect of Information on Consumer Acceptance of Sodium-Reduced Kimchi According to Age

The high sodium content of kimchi is a contradicting factor from its fame as a healthy food. With the aim of reducing the sodium content of kimchi, the objective of this study was to understand the effect of providing "sodium-reduced" information on the acceptance of kimchi according to the age of consumption. Six sodium-reduced kimchi samples, prepared with different percentages of sodium reduction (25% and 50%) and potassium chloride concentration (none, 0.47%, and 0.93%), were compared to control kimchi (2.0% w/v NaCl). Sensory characterization of the samples was obtained using descriptive analysis. A total of 167 kimchi consumers with balanced proportion of the young (below 40) and the old (above 40) evaluated seven kimchi samples in either of the two conditions: blind testing condition or informed testing condition where each of the samples was provided with a label that informed about "sodium reduction percentage" and "whether a salt replacer was used or not." The results showed that in terms of healthiness perception, Korean female consumers believed that kimchi with a high sodium reduction rate would contribute to health in general, though an unfavorable notion of using a salt replacer was also observed. Also, the results suggested that promoting information about sodium reduction in kimchi would generally increase consumer acceptance. However, this phenomenon was influenced not only by the sample for which the information was provided, but also by the age of consumers with different health interests and kimchi experience. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The findings of this study showed simply reducing sodium and promoting it with a health claim showed limitation in achieving a high level of sodium reduction, such as a 50% reduction rate, which implied the importance of using supplementary material such as potassium chloride that can fulfill the missing saltiness and flavors of the original product. Promotion of "sodium-reduced" claims in kimchi generally results in increased consumer acceptance. However, the effectiveness of the information was dependent on which sample was provided and the age of the consumers, among whom health interests and kimchi experience differ.

Development of Reduced-Fat, Reduced-Sodium Semi-Hard Sheep Milk Cheese

This paper examines the effects of the incorporation of denatured whey proteins along with salting in NaCl/KCl brine on the characteristics and ripening of sheep milk reduced-fat (RF), semi-hard cheese. Incorporation of denatured whey proteins was carried out by: i. adding commercial microparticulated whey protein (MWP) in reduced-fat cheese milk (RFM), or ii. by ‘in situ’ heat-induced partial denaturation of whey proteins of reduced-fat cheese milk (RFD). The implemented cheesemaking conditions included curd washing, moderate clotting, scalding temperatures, and ripening of cheeses packed in plastic bags under vacuum at 10 °C. Full-fat cheeses (FF) were manufactured in parallel. Physicochemical composition, textural profile, and proteolysis were assessed throughout 60 days of ripening. The mean moisture, fat on dry matter (FDM), moisture on non-fat substances (MNFS), protein on dry matter (PDM), salt, and salt-in-moisture (S/M) content of the RF cheeses were 47.4%, 32.8%, 57.3%, 54.3%, 1.63%, and 3.36%, respectively; pH ≈ 5.0, a_w ≈ 0.977, Ca ≈ 1000 mg/100 g cheese. The MNFS of FF and RF cheeses were similar. Proteolysis indices were not affected by any of the treatments, and they were similar to the FF counterparts. The applied cheesemaking technology was adequate for the production of semi-hard reduced-fat and reduced-sodium cheeses. Ripening under packaging hindered moisture loss without impairing the evolution of proteolysis and textural parameters. The same holds true for salting in NaCl/KCl brine. The high pasteurization of cheese milk was more effective for the increase of moisture and MNFS than the addition of MWP, without exhibiting any adverse effects.

Study of the effectiveness of staphylococcins in biopreservation of Minas fresh (Frescal) cheese with a reduced sodium content

Reducing salt content in foods such as cheeses, while limiting the growth of spoilage microorganisms and foodborne pathogens, is a difficult challenge. One method that may prove useful is use of staphylococcins, which are bacteriocins produced by staphylococci. Therefore, staphylococcin antimicrobial activity against six strains of S. aureus isolated from cheese was tested aiming at their industrial application in biopreservation of Minas fresh (Frescal) cheese with reduced sodium content. Three staphylococcins were selected for these tests: Pep 5, aureocin A53 and lysostaphin. All three staphylococcins proved to be bacteriolytic against all six strains of S. aureus. The antimicrobial activity of the partially purified staphylococcins was subsequently investigated against strains S. aureus Q1 and QJ3 in cheese matrices (6.0 log CFU/g) with different NaCl contents (control, a 25% reduction, and a 50% reduction), kept under refrigeration at 4 °C, for 21 days. Both strains were shown to be of concern for food industry as they carry the SEA, SEB and SEH enterotoxin genes, and are resistant to β-lactam drugs and moderate biofilm formers when grown in TSB. When used singly, Pep5, aureocin A53 and lysostaphin reduced approximately 95%, 99% and 99.99% of the viable cell counts, respectively, irrespective of the sodium content of the cheese matrix. The combined action of aureocin A53 and Pep5 resulted in an additional and significant reduction (p < 0.05) of ~1.0 log CFU/g when compared with the reduction caused by the use of either one singly. The combined action of lysostaphin and aureocin A53 or lysostaphin and Pep5 resulted in a reduction similar to or slightly smaller (p > 0.05) than that observed when lysostaphin was employed singly. Lysostaphin also proved to reduce the number of the staphylococcal viable cells to a level (~ 2.0 log CFU/g) at which enterotoxin production should not reach a sufficient quantity to cause food poisoning. Therefore, lysostaphin may have a practical application in the food industry to control staphylococcal contamination of Minas fresh cheese with a sodium content reduced up to 50%, providing consumers with more safe options to reduce their intake of sodium.

Sodium reduction strategies through use of meat extenders (white button mushrooms vs. textured soy) in beef patties

Lowering the sodium content in meat products, particularly in beef patties, can be challenging because sodium plays many functional roles in these products. Meat extenders can contribute to lower sodium content by imparting complementary flavors while reducing caloric and sodium content. A systematic comparison of two meat extenders, namely mushrooms and textured soy (TSP) in terms of physical and sensory characteristics, is presented herein. The physical properties of the samples suggested that the use of mushroom and TSP extender would perform statistically similar to an all-meat control depending on the level of substitution. Hedonic sensory analysis showed meat extension using mushrooms yielded liking scores more similar to the all-meat formulations than TSP in reduced sodium applications. The results of this research suggest that mushrooms have the potential to be successfully incorporated into reduced sodium meat products to provide a healthier product.

Effects of high intensity ultrasound on the inactivation profiles of Escherichia coli K12 and Listeria innocua with salt and salt replacers

This study investigated the efficacy of power ultrasound (US) for the inactivation of Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua in the presence of sodium salt and salt replacers. Inoculated bacteria suspensions were treated at ultrasonic frequencies of 33 or 20 kHz alone or in combination, and in the presence of 5% NaCl, 5% KCl or 5% NaCl/KCl. Inactivation curves were fitted to the Weibull and the Biphasic models. The goodness of the fit for each model was evaluated based on R² and RMSE, while AIC and BIC values were used to choose the best model predictor. The Weibull and the biphasic models showed high regression coefficient (R² > 0.99) and low RMSE (<0.03) values. According to the results, inactivation up to 6 log for E. coli K12 and to 4 log for L. innocua could be achieved within one hour of ultrasound treatment. However, the presence of NaCl, or its substitution with KCl did not affect the degree of inhibition for both microorganisms. The results of this study suggest that power ultrasound treatment may be employed for the inactivation of microorganisms when low salt or salt substitutes are employed.

A 100-Year Review: Cheese production and quality

In the beginning, cheese making in the United States was all art, but embracing science and technology was necessary to make progress in producing a higher quality cheese. Traditional cheese making could not keep up with the demand for cheese, and the development of the factory system was necessary. Cheese quality suffered because of poor-quality milk, but 3 major innovations changed that: refrigeration, commercial starters, and the use of pasteurized milk for cheese making. Although by all accounts cold storage improved cheese quality, it was the improvement of milk quality, pasteurization of milk, and the use of reliable cultures for fermentation that had the biggest effect. Together with use of purified commercial cultures, pasteurization enabled cheese production to be conducted on a fixed time schedule. Fundamental research on the genetics of starter bacteria greatly increased the reliability of fermentation, which in turn made automation feasible. Demand for functionality, machinability, application in baking, and more emphasis on nutritional aspects (low fat and low sodium) of cheese took us back to the fundamental principles of cheese making and resulted in renewed vigor for scientific investigations into the chemical, microbiological, and enzymatic changes that occur during cheese making and ripening. As milk production increased, cheese factories needed to become more efficient. Membrane concentration and separation of milk offered a solution and greatly enhanced plant capacity. Full implementation of membrane processing and use of its full potential have yet to be achieved. Implementation of new technologies, the science of cheese making, and the development of further advances will require highly trained personnel at both the academic and industrial levels. This will be a great challenge to address and overcome.

Adoptable Interventions, Human Health, and Food Safety Considerations for Reducing Sodium Content of Processed Food Products

Although vital for maintaining health when consumed in moderation, various epidemiological studies in recent years have shown a strong association between excess dietary sodium with an array of health complications. These associations are robust and clinically significant for development of hypertension and prehypertension, two of the leading causes of preventable mortality worldwide, in adults with a high-sodium diet. Data from developed nations and transition economies show worldwide sodium intake of higher than recommended amounts in various nations. While natural foods typically contain a moderate amount of sodium, manufactured food products are the main contributor to dietary sodium intake, up to 75% of sodium in diet of American adults, as an example. Lower cost in formulation, positive effects on organoleptic properties of food products, effects on food quality during shelf-life, and microbiological food safety, make sodium chloride a notable candidate and an indispensable part of formulation of various products. Although low-sodium formulation of each product possesses a unique set of challenges, review of literature shows an abundance of successful experiences for products of many categories. The current study discusses adoptable interventions for product development and reformulation of products to achieve a modest amount of final sodium content while maintaining taste, quality, shelf-stability, and microbiological food safety.

Fluorescence spectroscopy coupled with independent components analysis to monitor molecular changes during heating and cooling of Cantal-type cheeses with different NaCl and KCl contents

BACKGROUND

Reduction of NaCl content of cheeses has received considerable attention by research during the past decades because of its health effects. Nonetheless, NaCl reduction is a challenge since it plays an important role in cheese quality, such as structure, texture and functional properties. Several methods were used to evaluate the effect of NaCl on these attributes. In this study, Cantal-type cheeses with different salts (NaCl and KCl) were analyzed for their structure at a molecular level and rheological properties during heating (20-60 °C) and cooling (60-20 °C). The structure was investigated by synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy (SFS) and the rheological properties by small-amplitude oscillatory test.

RESULTS

Independent components analysis (ICA) gave three independent components that were attributed to coenzyme/Maillard reaction products (IC1), tryptophan (IC2) and vitamin A (IC3). Signal proportions of each IC depicted information regarding the changes in those fluorophores with salts, heating and cooling. In addition, canonical correlation analysis (CCA) of the IC proportions and rheological measurements related modifications at a molecular level evaluated by fluorescence to cheese texture (0.34 < R² < 0.99).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that SFS can monitor and characterize modification of Cantal-type cheeses at a molecular level, based on the analysis of the fluorescence spectra by ICA. The nature of correlation between signal proportions and the rheological parameters depicted that rheological attributes of cheeses observed at the macroscopic level can be derived from fluorescence spectra. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Draining and salting as responsible key steps in the generation of the acid-forming potential of cheese: Application to a soft blue-veined cheese

A disregarded nutritional feature of cheeses is their high acid-forming potential when ingested, which is associated with deleterious effects on consumers' health. This work aimed to characterize the acid-forming potential of a blue-veined cheese during manufacturing to identify the main steps of the process involved in this phenomenon. Sampling was performed on 3 batches at 10 steps of the cheese-making process: reception of raw milk, pasteurization, maturation of milk, coagulation, stirring, draining of the curds, and 4 ripening stages: 21, 28, 42, and 56d. The acid-forming potential of each sample was evaluated by (1) the calculation of the potential renal acid load (PRAL) index (considering protein, Cl, P, Na, K, Mg, and Ca contents), and (2) its organic anion content (lactate and citrate), considered as alkalinizing elements. Draining and salting were identified as the main steps responsible for generation of the acid-forming potential of cheese. The draining process induced an increase in the PRAL index from 1.2mEq/100g in milk to 10.4mEq/100g in drained curds due to the increase in dry matter and the loss of alkaline minerals into the whey. The increase in PRAL value (20.3mEq/100g at d 56) following salting resulted from an imbalance between the strong acidogenic elements (Cl, P, and proteins) and the main alkalinizing ones (Na and Ca). Particularly, Cl had a major effect on the PRAL value. Regarding organic anions, draining induced a loss of 93% of the citrate content in initial milk. The lactate content increased as fermentation occurred (1,297.9mg/100g in drained curds), and then decreased during ripening (519.3mg/100g at d 56). This lactate level probably helps moderate the acidifying potential of end products. Technological strategies aimed at limiting the acid-forming potential of cheeses are proposed and deserve further research to evaluate their nutritional relevance.