Invited review: Prevalence, risk factors, treatment, and barriers to best practice adoption for lameness and injuries in dairy cattle-A narrative review

Lameness and leg injuries are both painful and prevalent across the dairy industry, and are a major welfare concern. There has been a considerable amount of research focused on investigating the risk factors associated with lameness and injuries and how they might be prevented and treated. The objectives of this narrative review were to summarize herd-level prevalence estimates, risk factors, strategies for prevention, control, and treatment of these conditions, and the barriers to best practice adoption for lameness and injuries on dairy farms. There is a relatively high within-herd prevalence of lameness on dairy farms globally, with a recent systematic review estimating the mean prevalence at 22.8%. Similarly, there is a relatively high prevalence of hock injuries, with within-herd estimates ranging from 12% to 81% of cows affected. Knee and neck injuries have been reported to be less common, with 6% to 43% and 1% to 33%, respectively. Numerous risk factors have been associated with the incidence of lameness, notably housing (e.g., access to pasture, bedding depth, bedding type, flooring type, stall design), management (e.g., stall cleanliness, frequency of trimming, holding times, stocking density), and cow-level (e.g., body condition, parity, injured hocks) factors. Risk factors associated with hock injuries can be similarly classified into housing (e.g., bedding type and depth, outdoor access, parlor type, stall design), management (e.g., bedding depth, cleanliness), and cow (e.g., parity, days in milk, lameness) factors. Key preventative approaches for lameness include routine preventative and corrective hoof trimming, improving hoof cushioning and traction through access to pasture or adding rubber flooring, deep-bedded stalls, sand bedding, ensuring appropriate stocking densities, reduced holding times, and the frequent use of routine footbaths. Very little research has been conducted on hock, knee, and neck injury prevention and recovery. Numerous researchers have concluded that both extrinsic (e.g., time, money, space) and intrinsic (e.g., farmer attitude, perception, priorities, and mindset) barriers exist to addressing lameness and injuries on dairy farms. There are many diverse stakeholders in lameness and injury management including the farmer, farm staff, veterinarian, hoof trimmer, nutritionist, and other advisors. Addressing dairy cattle lameness and injuries must, therefore, consider the people involved, as it is these people who are influencing and implementing on-farm decisions related to lameness prevention, treatment, and control.

Risk Categorization in On-Farm Welfare in Different-Sized Dairy Sheep Flocks

The objective of the present work was to categorize the risks in the on-farm welfare of dairy sheep in semi-extensive systems in order to highlight if risks in welfare vary according to the farm size. To the best of our knowledge, this study constitutes one of the few categorizations of the risks in the welfare of dairy sheep reared semi-extensively. The survey was conducted on 12 semi-extensive dairy sheep farms in Tuscany (Central Italy), which were classified according to flock size: <500, from 500 to 1000, and >1000. The results showed an adequate rating for all the farms included in the study. The most critical issues concerned the ratio between the number of stockpersons and the number of animals within the farms, the small decubitus areas, the lack of udder cleaning procedures during milking operations, and, in terms of biosecurity, the lack of prevention, control, and eradication plans for the most important infectious ovine diseases. The results show that different items in the five areas evaluated, including the assessments of management of the flock, the number of daily inspections, and the hygiene of the water supplies are associated with the farm size. In large farms, the assessment of management of the flock was better, but the number of daily inspections and the hygiene of the water supplies were worse.

Genetic parameters and evaluation of mortality and slaughter rate in Holstein and Jersey cows

The longevity of dairy cattle has economic, animal welfare, and health implications and is influenced by the frequency of mortality on the farm and sale for slaughter. In this study cows removed from the herd due to death or slaughter during the lactation were coded 1 and cows that were not terminated were coded 0. Genetic parameters for mortality rates (MR) and slaughter rates (SR) were estimated for Holstein (H) and Jersey (J) breeds by applying both linear (LM) and threshold (TM) sire models using about 1.2 million H and 286,000 J cows. Estimated breeding values (EBV) for MR and SR were predicted using animal models to assess the opportunity for selection and genetic trends. Cow termination data, recorded between 1990 and 2020 on a voluntary basis by Australian dairy farmers, were analyzed. Cow MR has increased from below 1% in the 1990s to 4.1% and 3.6% in recent years in H and J cows, respectively. Most dead cows (∼36%) left the herd before 120 d of lactation, while cows that were slaughtered left the herd toward the end of the lactation. Using the LM, heritability (h2) estimates for MR were lower (1%) than those for SR (2%-3.5%). When h2 were estimated using a TM, the estimates for both traits varied between 4% and 20%, suggesting that the difference in incidence level is one of the reasons for the difference in the h2 values between MR and SR. Early test-day milk yield (MY) and 305-d MY (305-d MY) have unfavorable genetic correlations (0.32-0.41) with MR in both breeds. The genetic correlations of calving interval with MR were stronger (0.54-0.68) than with SR (0.28-0.45) suggesting that poor fertility can serve as an early indicator of poor cow health that may lead to increased risk of death. High early test-day somatic cell count is genetically associated with increased likelihood of slaughter (0.24-0.46), but not with increased likelihood of death. In H, 305-d protein yield (PY) had the strongest genetic correlation (-0.34 to -0.40) with SR whereas in J, both 305-d PY and fat yield showed high genetic (-0.64 to -0.70) and moderate environmental (-0.35 to -0.37) correlations with SR. The genetic correlation of removal from the herd due to death and slaughter was negative (-0.3) in J and zero in H. Strong selection for improved fertility and survival and less selection emphasis for MY, has led to an improvement in the genetic trend for cow MR in H and the trend in J has stabilized. Although genetic evaluations for cow MR are feasible, the reliabilities of the EBV are low and the level of cow MR in Australia are relatively low compared with similar countries. Therefore, genetic evaluation for survival based on mortality and slaughter data could be sufficient in the current selection circumstances where breeding objectives are broadly defined. Nevertheless, all Australian farmers should be encouraged to continue recording mortality and slaughter data for monitoring of the trends and for future development of genetic evaluations.

Obtaining an animal welfare status in Norwegian dairy herds-A mountain to climb

Introduction

Knowing the national status of animal welfare, one can identify welfare problems and set a benchmark against which improvements can be compared. Such a status is potentially invaluable for tangible, sustained animal welfare improvement. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to report the status of animal welfare in Norwegian loose-housed dairy herds as assessed using the Welfare Quality^® Assessment Protocol. Additionally, we investigated if the welfare status varied on a regional basis.

Methods

In total, 155 herds in eight of Norway's eleven counties were assessed by six trained Welfare Quality^® assessors. This article presents the herd prevalences of common welfare issues in dairy production in Norway, as well as integrated welfare scores. To determine whether welfare status varied regionally in Norway, generalized linear modeling was used to estimate the mean welfare score for five regions in the four Welfare Quality^® principles: A. Good feeding, B. Good housing, C. Good health, and D. Appropriate behavior. These estimated mean welfare scores and their 95% confidence intervals were subsequently assessed for significant variation.

Results

Encouraging findings included the low mean herd prevalence of 'very lean' cows (3.0%) and the high proportion of cows (59.8%) which could be touched during avoidance distance testing, indicating a positive relationship between stockpeople and their cattle. Challenges affecting the welfare of Norwegian dairy cows were also identified. Of particular concern were issues related to the cows' environment such as prolonged times needed to complete lying down movements and integument alterations. No herd was completely free of changes to the integument and, on average, 77.9% of each herd were affected either mildly or severely. Animal welfare did not appear to vary much between the five regions assessed. Our investigation revealed significant regional variation between two regions (Trøndelag and Vestlandet North) in only the Welfare Quality^® principle Good housing (p < 0.01).

Discussion

The almost complete absence of regional variation demonstrates that animal welfare status generally varies most at herd level. In conclusion, both welfare challenges and encouraging findings were identified in loose-housed Norwegian dairy herds. To improve animal welfare, herd-specific interventions are most likely to be effective in these herds.

Is animal welfare better on smaller dairy farms? Evidence from 3,085 dairy farms in Germany

The structural change toward larger (dairy) farms is often criticized because it supposedly has a negative effect on farm animal welfare. We investigated this criticism using cross-sectional survey data from 3,085 German dairy farms. Even though our sample was a convenience sample, it closely resembled the diverse structures of dairy farming in Germany and covered a wide range of dairy farm sizes (7 to 2,900 cows per farm, mean 122). We developed an animal welfare index (AWI) in close consultation with experts along the dairy value chain (e.g., farm animal welfare scientists, farmers, dairy representatives). Regression results showed that larger farms tended to achieve a better AWI than smaller farms in our data set. However, the effect size was small. Nevertheless, in contrast to the widespread assumption in public discussion, larger dairy herds are not necessarily associated with poorer animal welfare. In all herd size classes, we found a large variation of AWI between herds. Although this study focused on the effect of herd size, it is not the only factor affecting animal welfare levels on individual farms. Other variables that we included in the regression to describe the AWI indicate that the knowledge and skills of the farm manager and the amount of time that farms can devote to animals have a positive effect on the AWI. However, as with herd size, the effect size of other explanatory variables was small in absolute terms.

The Welfare of Dairy Cows in Pasture, Free Stall, and Compost Barn Management Systems in a Brazilian Subtropical Region

The effect of milk production systems on the welfare of dairy cows has been studied worldwide, but studies that compare pasture-based, compost barn, and free stall systems, according to animal welfare, are more scarce. In this work, the welfare of 51 dairy herds, including 17 from each management system, was investigated through the application of the Welfare Quality® protocol. Descriptive statistics and the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric method were used to analyze variables. In the present work, the welfare of the evaluated herds was significantly better in the pasture-based system than in the confinement systems. However, the pasture-based system presented weaknesses in providing water resources. The compost barn had fewer animal welfare critical points than the free stall system, as well as it was better than the free stall in measures related to comfort and health. The free stall did not present better scores than the other systems. It is concluded that the welfare of dairy cows is affected by the rearing system, with better scores, in most measures, in the pasture-based system, followed by the compost barn and, finally, the free stall.

Alterations in nutrient digestibility and performance of heat-stressed dairy cows by dietary L-theanine supplementation

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary L-theanine supplementation on apparent nutrient digestibility, milk yield, milk composition, and blood biochemical indices of dairy cows under heat stress. Thirty Chinese Holstein cows (19.84 ± 2.42 kg milk/d, 192.36 ± 40.77 d in milk and 2 ± 0.93 parities) were divided into 3 groups of 10 animals each. The control group was fed a basal total mixed ration (TMR) diet, while treatment 1 (LTA16) and treatment 2 (LTA32) groups were fed a basal TMR diet supplemented with L-theanine at 16 and 32 g/cow per day, respectively. The results showed that feeding the dairy cows with LTA16 treatment decreased (P < 0.05) their rectal temperature, whereas feeding with LTA32 treatment decreased (P < 0.05) their rumen fluid ammonia nitrogen content. In comparison to the control group, the supplementation of L-theanine had no significant effect (P > 0.05) on the dry matter intake, nutrient digestibility, total volatile fatty acid (TVFA) concentration and molar proportion of volatile fatty acid, milk yield, milk composition, feed efficiency and antioxidant capacity of the dairy cows. The triglyceride (TG) content of the LTA32 group was significantly greater (P = 0.014) than that of the control group. With the increase in L-theanine dosage, the serum cholesterol (CHOL) content significantly increased (P = 0.013). The serum albumin (ALB; P = 0.067), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C; P = 0.053), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C; P = 0.067) contents showed an upward trend as L-theanine dosage increased. Ultimately, the results of this study show that supplementing dairy cow diet with L-theanine could decrease dairy cow rectal temperature, affect lipid metabolism, and potentially relieve the heat stress of dairy cows to some extent.

Review: Assessment of dairy cow welfare at pasture: measures available, gaps to address, and pathways to development of ad-hoc protocols

Pasture is generally perceived as positive for dairy cow welfare, but it nevertheless exposes cows to heat, parasites, and other challenges. This review is intended for people ready to design comprehensive protocols for assessing the welfare of dairy cows at pasture. We provide an overview of the benefits and risks of pasture for cows, and then go on to identify the available and feasible measures for assessing cow welfare at pasture and the gaps that need to be addressed to develop specific welfare measures. Some of the measures from on-farm welfare assessment protocols designed for indoor use (e.g. Welfare Quality®) are relevant for cows at pasture (e.g. lameness scoring). However, the timing, location and/or method for certain measures (e.g. observation of social behaviour) need to be adapted to the pasture context, as cows at pasture can roam over a large area. Measures to address specific pasture-related risks (e.g. heat stress, biosecurity) or benefits (e.g. expression of a wide range of behaviours) should be implemented in order to capture all dimensions of cow welfare at pasture. Furthermore, cow welfare is liable to vary over the grazing season due to changes in weather conditions, grass quality and pasture plots that induce variations in lying surface conditions, food availability, distance to walk to the milking parlour, and so on. It is therefore important to investigate the variability in different welfare measures across the pasture season to check whether they hold stable over time and, if not, to determine solutions that can give an overview across the grazing season. Sensors offer a promising complement to animal and environment observations, as they can capture long-term animal monitoring data, which is simply not possible for a one-day welfare-check visit. We conclude that some measures validated for indoor situations can already be used in pasture-based systems, while others need to be validated for their fitness for purpose and/or use in pasture conditions. Furthermore, thresholds should probably be determined for measures to fit with pasture contexts. If all measures can be made adaptable to all situations encountered on farms or variants of the measures can at least be proposed for each criterion, then it should be possible to produce a comprehensive welfare assessment protocol suitable for large-scale use in near future.

Benchmarking animal handling outcomes on cow-calf operations and identifying associated factors

The assessment of animal handling is commonly included in cattle care programs. The guidelines set in the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association Beef Checkoff funded Beef Quality Assurance (BQA) program are often used for assessing handling on feedlot, stocker, and cow-calf operations. There is limited information about animal handling on cow-calf operations. Thus, the objectives of this study were to: (1) quantify handling outcomes on cow-calf operations and compare them to national BQA program thresholds, and (2) investigate factors associated with handling outcomes. Researchers visited 76 operations across the United States to observe the following outcomes, adapted from the BQA program, during the processing of cows or yearling heifers: Prod Use, Miscatch, Vocalization, Jump, Slip/Stumble, Fall and Run. One hundred cows or less (depending on herd size) were observed moving through a restraint system at each operation. Other information specific to the animal type, facilities, and management were also gathered to be explored as potential predictors of handling outcomes. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics on an operation basis and analyzed with multi-predictor ANOVA or Kruskal–Wallis tests to assess the relationship between outcomes and possible explanatory factors. Predictors included in the final analyses were: BQA certification (BQA), animal temperament (TEMP), region (REGION), chute style (CHUTE), and visual contact with humans (VISUAL). The 76 operations were sampled in 24 states (Central, n = 17; East, 30; West, 29), with herd sizes ranging from 10 animals to more than 5,000 animals. A total of 4,804 animals were observed. There were a substantial number of operations exceeding BQA thresholds for Prod Use (34.0%, 26), Miscatch (46.0%, 35), and Fall (31.6%, 24); the averages of these outcomes also exceeded the BQA thresholds (< 10%, 0%, and 2%, respectively). There was an association between Prod Use and several explanatory factors, including SIZE (P = 0.072), TEMP (P = 0.001), VISUAL (P = 0.027), and BQA (P = 0.104). Miscatch, Vocalization, and Fall all had single associated factors (REGION, P = 0.019; REGION, P = 0.002; VISUAL, P = 0.002, respectively). The VISUAL and TEMP factors had an association with the majority of outcomes. The findings suggest an opportunity for improving handling outcomes, which could be achieved through education and training support regarding the importance of animal handling on-farm. Future work should consider additional aspects of facilities and management that could impact cattle handling outcomes.

Determining Value Added Intellectual Capital (VAIC) Using the TOPSIS-CRITIC Method in Small and Medium-Sized Farms in Selected European Countries

The purpose of this paper is to develop a modified method of measuring VAIC for small and medium-sized farms and to determine the relationship of this measure on farm area. The main objective will be implemented through the following specific objectives: (1) indication of the generating variables VA, VC, HC and SC, (2) determination of synthetic measures of VA, VC, HC and SC, (3) determination of CEE, HCE, SCE and VAIC and (4) to determine the relationship between the values obtained in objective 2 and 3 and the area of the farm. The analyses were carried out on data obtained from 2980 small and medium-sized farms from Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Moldova and Serbia. The determination of VAIC was carried out on the basis of synthetic measures determined by the TOPSIS-CRITIC method. VAIC was determined in accordance with the scheme proposed by Pulic. All data were converted to one hectare of farm area. The analysed farms were divided into four classes depending on the area. A contrast analysis was carried out between the designated classes. Analyses were conducted for each of the five countries separately. The alternative VAIC measurement method presented needs to be refined in terms of the selection of classified variables to create synthetic measures. The analysis indicates that it is feasible to measure VAIC through the use of alternative measures in the form of synthetic measures while at the same time preserving the principles resulting from the VAIC concept. The uniqueness of the method lies in the use of synthetic measures to determine VAIC in companies that do not possess complete accounting information. In addition, failures in the proposed method have been eliminated in terms of the method’s compatibility with human capital theory. The methodology used is an original approach to measuring the value of intellectual capital. In addition, it should contribute to the re-verification of the VAIC.

To meet or not to meet welfare outcome thresholds: a case-control study in dairy cow herds

Recently published thresholds allow classifying dairy cattle herds according to target, caution and alert ranges for welfare outcomes. Such normative thresholds provide one way to transparently assess production practices and are a straightforward communication tool with farmers. In an ordinal response case-control study, we investigated associations of animal, management and resource-related indicators with the risk of exceeding thresholds of prevalence for lameness, claw disorders, integument alterations and leg cleanliness. To this end, we used cumulative logistic regression models on 264 tethered and 392 loose-housed Austrian dairy herds. In tethered herds, the risk indicator average lactation milk yield was positively associated with the probability to exceed thresholds for integument alteration prevalence but negatively regarding leg cleanliness. Associations were also found for operation type regarding integument alterations (lower risk on organic vs conventional farms), for herd size regarding lameness (negative association) and dirty upper hind leg (positive association), and for percentage of fifth or higher parity cows in the herd regarding dirty lower hind leg (positive association). Stall type was identified as risk indicator regarding claw disorders (lower risk of long vs short stands). In loose housing systems, none of the analysed risk indicators was associated with the probability to exceed thresholds for total lameness and claw disorder prevalence. Negative associations with the probability to exceed caution or alert thresholds were identified for lifetime milk yield (dirty upper hind leg), lactation milk yield (dirty upper and lower hind leg), percentage of cows in the herd with a fat-protein-ratio <1 (integument alterations), and percentage of cows in the herd with a fat-protein-ratio >1.5 (dirty upper hind leg). Pasture access showed negative (severe lameness, integument alterations) and herd size positive associations (severe lameness) with the probability to exceed thresholds. Deep litter cubicles compared to raised cubicles with rubber mats showed a lower probability to exceed thresholds (integument alterations, dirty lower hind leg) as well as solid rubber compared to concrete slatted flooring in alleyways (integument alterations). Assessments carried out during the pasture period compared to during winter housing were associated with a lower risk of exceeding thresholds for leg cleanliness measures in both, tethered and loose-housed herds, and for integument alteration prevalence in tethered herds. In conclusion, no principal risk indicator was identified which consistently determined the probability of exceeding predefined thresholds of considered welfare outcomes. Nevertheless, outcome-specific factors show sufficient impact on the categorisation of farms according to prevalence ranges.

A review of factors affecting the welfare of dairy calves in pasture-based production systems

Current research on factors affecting the welfare of dairy calves is predominantly based on indoor, year-round calving systems. Calf rearing in these systems differs from that in more seasonal, pasture-based dairy production, meaning that risks to the welfare of dairy calves may not always be comparable between the two systems. The aim of this review was to consolidate the scientific literature relating to calf welfare in pasture-based dairy systems from birth until weaning, allowing for (1) the identification of current and emerging risks to calf welfare and (2) the formation of recommendations to mitigate these risks. Many of the risks to calf welfare discussed in this review are not exclusive to pasture-based dairies. This includes a global trend for increasing perinatal mortalities, a significant number of calves failing to achieve effective passive transfer of immunity, the low uptake of best practice pain relief when calves are disbudded, and the feeding of restricted milk volumes. In addition to these persisting welfare risks, two factors discussed in this review pose an immediate threat to the social license of dairy farming; the separation of cow and calf soon after birth and the management of surplus calves (i.e. calves not needed by the dairy industry). Several recommendations are made to improve the uptake of best-practice calf rearing and progress the development of alternative pasture-based rearing systems that accommodate changing community expectations. These include communication strategies that strengthen farmer beliefs regarding the welfare and productivity benefits achieved by best practice calf rearing and challenge beliefs regarding the associated costs. Farmers should also be encouraged to benchmark their rearing practices through improved record keeping of key rearing inputs and outcomes. Biological research is needed to advise the development of new calf rearing recommendations and the evolution of existing recommendations. Research priorities identified by this review include the effects of dystocia on the neonate and strategies to mitigate these effects, relationships between features of pen design and calf health and welfare, feasibility of dam rearing in large pasture-based dairy systems, and strategies that increase the value of the surplus calf.

Contribution of Precision Livestock Farming Systems to the Improvement of Welfare Status and Productivity of Dairy Animals

Although the effects of human–dairy cattle interaction have been extensively examined, data concerning small ruminants are scarce. The present review article aims at highlighting the effects of management practices on the productivity, physiology and behaviour of dairy animals. In general, aversive handling is associated with a milk yield reduction and welfare impairment. Precision livestock farming systems have therefore been applied and have rapidly changed the management process with the introduction of technological and computer innovations that contribute to the minimization of animal disturbances, the promotion of good practices and the maintenance of cattle’s welfare status and milk production and farms’ sustainability and competitiveness at high levels. However, although dairy farmers acknowledge the advantages deriving from the application of precision livestock farming advancements, a reluctance concerning their regular application to small ruminants is observed, due to economic and cultural constraints and poor technological infrastructures. As a result, targeted intervention training programmes are also necessary in order to improve the efficacy and efficiency of handling, especially of small ruminants.

Cow- and herd-level risk factors for lameness in partly housed pasture-based dairy cows

Lameness in dairy cows is a major animal welfare concern and has substantial economic impact through reduced production and fertility. Previous risk factor analyses have focused on housed systems, rather than those where cows were grazed for the majority of the year and housed only for the winter period. Therefore, the aim of this observational study was to identify a robust set of cow-level and herd-level risk factors for lameness in a pasture-based system, based on predictors from the housing and grazing periods. Ninety-nine farms were visited during the grazing period (April 2019-September 2019), and 85 farms were revisited during the housing period (October 2019-February 2020). At each visit, all lactating cows were scored for lameness (0 = good mobility, 1 = imperfect mobility, 2 = impaired mobility, 3 = severely impaired mobility), and potential herd-level risk factors were recorded through questionnaires and infrastructure measurements. Routine cow-level management data were also collected. Important risk factors for lameness were derived though triangulation of results from elastic net regression, and from logistic regression model selection using modified Bayesian information criterion. Both selection methods were implemented using bootstrapping. This novel approach has not previously been used in a cow-level or herd-level risk factor analysis in dairy cows, to the authors' knowledge. The binary outcome variable was lameness status, whereby cows with a lameness score of 0 or 1 were classed as non-lame and cows with a score of 2 or 3 were classed as lame. Cow-level risk factors for increased lameness prevalence were age and genetic predicted transmitting ability for lameness. Herd-level risk factors included farm and herd size, stones in paddock gateways, slats on cow tracks near the collecting yard, a sharper turn at the parlor exit, presence of digital dermatitis on the farm, and the farmers' perception of whether lameness was a problem on the farm. This large-scale study identified the most important associations between risk factors and lameness, based on the entire year (grazing and housing periods), providing a focus for future randomized clinical trials.

Survival and prognostic indicators in downer dairy cows presented to a referring hospital: A retrospective study (1318 cases)

Background

Downer cow syndrome, a common problem in dairy cattle, represents a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge for the attending veterinarian. Identifying prognostic indicators and assessing the odds of survival may improve the accuracy of the clinician's prognosis at the time of diagnosis.

Objective

To describe a population of downer dairy cows referred to a hospital and investigate predictors of outcome.

Animals

Recumbent adult dairy cows (cows unable or unwilling to stand without help) treated at a referral hospital.

Methods

Data at the time of admission were collected from medical records of downer dairy cows treated at the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vétérinaire between 1994 and 2016. Simple and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to assess the association of predictors with the outcome.

Results

Among 1318 cows included, 727 (55%) cows were discharged, and 591 (45%) cows died or were euthanized. Cows with longer time of recumbency before referral (odds ratio [OR] = 3.6), tachycardia (100‐120 beats per minute [bpm], OR = 1.93; >120 bpm, OR = 2.92), tachypnea (OR = 1.76), hypothermia (OR = 2.08), anemia (OR = 3.30), neutropenia (OR = 1.7), high aspartate aminotransferase activity (500‐1000 U/L, OR = 2.16; >1000 U/L, OR = 6.69), and increased serum creatinine concentration (OR = 1.75) had higher odds of nonsurvival.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

These findings may help the practitioner to consider treatment options and decide if referral is likely beneficial based on the odds of success. Early recognition of low chance of survival may facilitate an early decision for euthanasia.

Invited review: Freedom from thirst-Do dairy cows and calves have sufficient access to drinking water?

The importance of drinking water for production and animal welfare is widely recognized, but surveys and animal welfare assessment schemes suggest that many dairy calves and dairy cows do not have sufficient access. Limit milk-fed calves drink more water than calves fed milk ad libitum, but ad libitum milk-fed calves also require access to drinking water, as milk does not meet the animal's requirement for water. At hot ambient temperatures and when calves are sick, access to water is especially important and should be provided at all times. Many young calves do not have access to water throughout 24 h, and whether healthy young calves require free access to water at all times, or from which age, is not clear and requires further study. Dairy cow free water intake (FWI) is largely determined by milk yield, and high-yielding dairy cows may drink up 100 L of water per day. Dry matter, crude protein, and salt content of feed, as well as ambient temperature, have considerable effects on dairy cow water intake. Deprivation of water affects meal patterning for the cow, as well as increased subsequent rate of drinking and compensatory water intake. Although dairy cow ad libitum water intake may exceed the water provision necessary to maintain production, offering water for ad libitum intake may be necessary to safe guard animal welfare. Cattle are suction drinkers that prefer to drink from large open water surfaces, and Holstein dairy cows can drink at a rate of up to 24 L/min. Research on the effect of design and placement of water troughs for indoor-housed dairy cows on their drinking behavior and water intake is limited. Access to a water source at pasture increases the time cows spend there, and access to shade reduces water requirements during periods of warm weather. In both indoor and pastured cattle, there is a lack of knowledge about the effect of stocking of water troughs on competition, drinking behavior, and intake in dairy cows. Studies on the effect of available water trough length and placement, and of the number of cows being able to drink from the same trough of a given dimension, are needed to evaluate current recommendations.

Review: Perspective on high-performing dairy cows and herds

Milk and dairy products provide highly sustainable concentrations of essential amino acids and other required nutrients for humans; however, amount of milk currently produced per dairy cow globally is inadequate to meet future needs. Higher performing dairy cows and herds produce more milk with less environmental impact per kg than lower performing cows and herds. In 2018, 15.4% of the world's dairy cows produced 45.4% of the world's dairy cow milk, reflecting the global contribution of high-performing cows and herds. In high-performing herds, genomic evaluations are utilized for multiple trait selection, welfare is monitored by remote sensing, rations are formulated at micronutrient levels, health care is focused on prevention and reproduction is managed with precision. Higher performing herds require more inputs and generate more waste products per cow, thus innovations in environmental management on such farms are essential for lowering environmental impacts. Our focus is to provide perspectives on technologies and practices that contribute most to sustainable production of milk from high-performing dairy cows and herds.

The Use of the General Animal-Based Measures Codified Terms in the Scientific Literature on Farm Animal Welfare

Background: The approach to farm animal welfare evaluation has changed and animal-based measures (ABM), defined as the responses of an animal or effects on an animal, were introduced to assess animal welfare. Animal-based measures can be taken directly on the animal or indirectly and include the use of animal records. They can result from a specific event or be the cumulative outcome of many days, weeks, or months. The objective of the current study was to analyze the use of general ABM codified terms in the scientific literature, the presence of their definitions, and the gap mapping of their use across animal species, categories, years of publication, and geographical areas of the corresponding author's institution. The ultimate aim was to propose a common standard terminology to improve communication among stakeholders. In this study, data models were populated by collecting information coming from scientific papers extracted through a transparent and reproducible protocol using Web of Science^TM and filtering for the general ABM codified terms (or synonyms/equivalents). A total of 199 papers were retained, and their full texts were assessed. The frequency of general codified ABM terms was analyzed according to the classification factors listed in the objectives. These papers were prevalently European (159 documents), and the most represented species was cattle. Fifty percent of the papers did not provide a definition of the general ABM terms, and 54% cited other sources as reference for their definition. The results of the study showed a very low penetration of the general codified ABM term in the literature on farm animal welfare, with only 1.5% of the papers including the term ABM. This does not mean that specific ABM are not studied, but rather that these specific ABM are not defined as such under a common umbrella, and there is no consensus on the use of terminology, not even among scientists. Thus, we cannot expect the stakeholders to use a common language and a standardized terminology. The recognition and the inclusion of ABM in the lists of commonly accepted abbreviations of scientific journals could be a first step to harmonize the terminology in the scientific literature.

Clinical disease incidence during early lactation, risk factors and association with fertility and culling in grazing dairy cows in Uruguay

This paper aims to describe clinical disease incidence in early lactation and explore its association with fertility and culling in 13 commercial grazing dairy herds in Uruguay. Seven farms with less than 250 dairy cows considered small herds (SH) with a herd size average ± (SD) of 144 ± (56) cows and six farms with more than 500 cows considered large herds (LH) with a herd size average ± (SD) of 830 ± (239) cows were selected. Herd managers recorded health events during the first 90 days in milk in 5375 Holstein dairy cows [24.5% (n=1316) of them were primiparous cows, (PP)] during one year. Overall, 36.5% (n=1959) of the cows had at least one clinical health event between 1-90 days in milk. The cumulative incidences were 2.2% for twin birth and 4.9% for stillbirth. Cumulative incidence was 4.4% for retained placenta-metritis (RP-metritis), 27.6% for clinical mastitis and 5.0% for lameness. Our data showed that parity and herd size were risk factors for postpartum disease in grazing dairy herds. In PP cows, stillbirth incidence was higher than in multiparous (MP) cows (PP=6.9 ± 3.4, SD vs. MP=4.3 ± 2.6, SD), while in MP cows twin births (MP=2.7 ± 1.7, SD vs. PP=0.7 ± 2.7, SD), RP-metritis (MP=4.6 ± 3.9, SD vs. PP=3.8 ± 3.7, SD) and mastitis incidence (MP=30.9 ± 11.4, SD vs. PP=17.2 ± 13.9, SD) was higher. Clinical mastitis (LH=29.4 ± 9.6, SD vs. SH=19.1 ± 11.3, SD) and lameness incidence (LH=5.6 ± 1.9, SD vs. SH=2.3 ± 2.1, SD) was higher in large herds than in small herds. RP-metritis was increased by stillbirth (OR=4.4, 95 % CI=2.9-6.5) and twin birth (OR=2.8, 95 % CI=1.5-5.1). Diseases had a negative impact on time to first service and pregnancy rate and increased culling hazard rate. Disease incidence in early lactation was high and showed a wide variation among herds (10.4%-48.7%), which highlights the relevance of a herd health program prioritizing the early lactation disease control.

Invited review: A 2020 perspective on pasture-based dairy systems and products

Grazing pasture is the basis for dairy production systems in regions with temperate climates, such as in Ireland, New Zealand, parts of Australia, the United States, and Europe. Milk and dairy products from cows on pasture-based farms predominantly consuming fresh grazed grass (typically classified as "grass-fed" milk) have been previously shown to possess a different nutrient profile, with potential nutritional benefits, compared with conventional milk derived from total mixed ration. Moreover, pasture-based production systems are considered more environmentally and animal welfare friendly by consumers. As such, there is significant potential for market capitalization on grass-fed dairy products. As competition in this space increases, the regulations of what constitutes as grass-fed vary between different regions of the world. With this in mind, there is a need for clear and independently accredited grass-fed standards, defining the grass-fed criteria for labeling of products as such, subsequently increasing the clarity and confidence for the consumer. This review outlines the numerous effects of pasture production systems on dairy product composition, nutritional profile, and sustainability, and highlights potential future methods for authentication.

The impact of management, husbandry and stockperson decisions on the welfare of laying hens in Australia

The present review examines the impact of management and husbandry decisions on the welfare of laying hens in Australia. The literature on many of these aspects is lacking for the Australian egg industry, and, indeed, for the egg industry in general. Management decisions that can affect hen welfare relate to the initial farm design, husbandry routines, and staff selection and training. As modern laying houses represent a considerable financial investment, the decisions made during the design phase are likely to affect both the hens and stockpeople for substantial periods. Hens in cage systems may benefit from fewer tiers and greater space allowances. In non-cage systems, the brown genotypes used in the Australian egg industry may benefit from lower structures that accommodate their heavier and less agile bodies. Keel fractures can be reduced by improving the skeletal health and spatial cognition of laying hens during the rearing period, in addition to minimising the distances they need to jump when navigating aviary structures. The addition of a wintergarden to fixed free-range systems appears to be beneficial. Housing hens in mobile units on free-range farms may challenge their welfare, particularly in relation to heat stress. There is also room for improvement in biosecurity practices and health monitoring of hens, as these appear to be lacking at some farms. The current strains of hen used in free-range systems may not be best suited to these conditions, on the basis of their body condition and flock uniformity. Feed quality may also need to be monitored for quality assurance and optimal hen nutrition. Hen welfare during depopulation can be improved through staff training and by reducing staff fatigue. Euthanising spent hens on farm offers welfare benefits over transporting spent hens to an abattoir. Both hen welfare and working conditions for stock people should be considered when designing laying houses to provide suitable conditions for both hens and stockpeople. This will help improve the job satisfaction of stockpeople, which may translate into better care for the hens and may aid in retaining quality staff. Stockpeople must be recognised as vital contributors to hen welfare in the egg industry, and it is important for the egg industry to continue to attract, train and retain skilled stockpeople to ensure that they enjoy their job and are motivated to apply best-practice care for their flocks. Promoting the animal-care aspect of stockmanship in combination with a supportive managerial environment with optimal working conditions may increase the attractiveness of the egg industry as a place to work.

Avoidance Distance in Sheltered Cows and Its Association with Other Welfare Parameters

The human-animal relationship is an important welfare parameter in animal welfare assessment in cows, and the avoidance distance of cows to a stranger at the feed bunk is measured to assess this relationship. The assessment of the human-animal relationship in cow shelters in India, where old, unproductive, and abandoned cows are sheltered, is important to explore the welfare of cows in these shelters. The cows observed were of indigenous Indian breeds and breeds which were crosses between indigenous breeds and pure bred exotic cows. The human-animal contact in this context is of particular interest for welfare assessment as traditional Indian farming and sheltering systems involves regular close human-animal contact. In a cross-sectional study across 6 states, 54 cow shelters were visited and 30 cows in each shelter were randomly selected (1620 in total) for the assessment of avoidance distance and other cow-based (27 parameters) and resource-based (15 parameters) welfare parameters. Avoidance distance was assessed 1 h after morning feeding. Cows standing at the feeding manger were approached from the front at a rate of one step/s, starting 2 m away from the manger. The distance between the assessor's hand and the cow's head was estimated at the moment the cow moved away and turned its head, using a four-point scale (0, touched; 1, 0-50 cm; 2, 51-100 cm; and 3, >100 cm). The majority, 52%, of the cows allowed touch by the assessor and another 32% allowed approach within 50 cm, demonstrating tolerance, or even solicitation of close human-animal relationships by the cows. Avoidance distance increased with the proportion of cows with dirty hind limbs, tarsal joint swellings, and hair loss, and the extent of rumen fill. There was also evidence of reduced avoidance distances in cows with high levels of body condition score (BCS), dirty flanks, tarsal joint ulceration, carpal joint injuries, diarrhoea, hampered respiration, lesions on the body due to traumatic injuries, and body coat condition, probably as a result of moving difficulties. The avoidance distance was thus related to the health and welfare of the cows, providing a vital insight into the factors affecting human-animal contact in the shelters.