Performance of various interpretations of clinical scoring systems for diagnosis of respiratory disease in dairy calves in a temperate climate using Bayesian latent class analysis

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) presents a challenge to farmers all over the globe, not only because it can have significant impacts on welfare and productivity, but also because diagnosis can prove challenging. Several clinical scoring systems have been developed to aid farmers in making consistent early diagnosis, 2 examples being the Wisconsin (WCS) and the California (CALIF) systems. Neither of these systems were developed in or for use in a temperate environment. As environment may lead to changes in BRD presentation, the weightings and cutoffs designed for one environmental presentation of BRD may not be appropriate when used in a temperate climate. Additionally, the interpretation of the scores recorded varies between studies; this may also influence conclusions. Hence, the objective of this work was to investigate the sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) of these tests in a temperate climate and investigate the influence of varying the interpretation on the performance of the WCS. In this prospective study, 98 commercial spring-calving dairy farms were recruited (40 randomly, 58 targeted) and visited. Thoracic ultrasound and WCS were performed on 20 randomly sampled calves between 4 and 6 wk of age on each farm. On a subset of 32 farms, the CALIF score was also undertaken. The data were then used in a hierarchical Bayesian latent class model to estimate the Se and Sp of 5 different interpretations of the Wisconsin clinical score and 1 interpretation of the California clinical score. In total, 1,936 calves were examined. The Se of the Wisconsin score varied from 0.336 to 0.577 depending on the interpretation used, and the Sp varied from 0.943 to 0.977. The Se of the California score was 0.563 (95% Bayesian credible interval [BCI]: 0.452, 0.681) and the Sp was 0.919 (95% BCI: 0.899, 0.937). In conclusion, the performances of the clinical scores in a temperate environment were similar to previously published work from more extreme climates; however, the performance varied widely depending on the score interpretation. Authors should justify their use of a particular clinical score interpretation to improve clarity in publications.

Associations of serostatus upon arrival with clinical respiratory disease, lung consolidation, and growth in veal calves

Respiratory tract infections remain a major problem during calf rearing, especially among milk (formula)-fed veal. Preconditioning of calves through appropriate colostrum management and vaccination could be helpful to address this issue. The objective of this study was to investigate whether the presence of serum antibodies against major respiratory tract pathogens (bovine respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza 3 virus, bovine coronavirus, Mycoplasmopsis bovis, Histophilus somni, Pasteurella multocida, and Mannheimia haemolytica) and total serum IgG concentration in calves upon arrival at the veal facility were associated with the occurrence of clinical bovine respiratory disease (BRD) or lung consolidation in the first 3 wk, as assessed by both the Wisconsin BRD scorecard (based on 5 clinical signs: cough, rectal temperature, ear position, and nasal and ocular discharge) and by quick thoracic ultrasound scanning. Additionally, the association between calves' serostatus production parameters were explored. A prospective cohort study was conducted among 442 male dairy calves on a large veal calf facility in Belgium. Both clinical scoring and quick thoracic ultrasound scanning were performed on all calves at 4 key moments in the production cycle: arrival at the facility, initiation of first metaphylactic antimicrobial treatment at peak incidence of BRD (wk 1), end of the first metaphylactic treatment (short-term evaluation) and at wk 10 (long-term evaluation). Mixed effects logit regression models were fitted to quantify relationships. The outcomes of interest were clinical respiratory disease (Wisconsin BRD scorecard positive), lung consolidation (≥1 cm or ≥ 3 cm), average daily weight gain, and cold carcass weight. In the first week of production, incidence of lung consolidation (≥1 cm) quickly increased from 14.9% upon arrival to 43.0% at the peak of the BRD incidence, while clinical BRD increased from 3.6% to 16.1%. The main finding of this study was that calves who were seropositive for bovine respiratory syncytial virus and bovine coronavirus at arrival had reduced odds of developing lung consolidation at the peak of the outbreak, 0.58 odds ratio (95% CI: 0.38-0.89) and 0.37 odds ratio (95% CI: 0.20-0.69), respectively. No relationships between serum IgG concentration at arrival and the development of lung consolidations or clinical respiratory disease were found. Nevertheless, on average, throughout the first 10 wk of the fattening cycle, calves with failed transfer of passive immunity (serum IgG < 7.5 g/L) gained 40 g/d (95% CI: 10-70 g/d) less weight (average daily gain). Hence, ensuring that calves have a positive serostatus for these respiratory tract pathogens before entering the facility may help lower the incidence of lung consolidations, subsequently reducing treatment incidence and the adverse effects on primary economic outcomes.

Blood gases, acid-base, and metabolic alterations in calves with bronchopneumonia diagnosed via clinical signs and thoracic ultrasonography: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Bronchopneumonia (BP) in calves potentially causes systemic changes.

OBJECTIVES

To describe metabolic, arterial blood gas, and acid-base disorders in calves with BP diagnosed by thoracic ultrasound (TUS), Wisconsin score (WISC), and combinations of WISC and TUS.

ANIMALS

Two hundred thirty-one dairy preweaned dairy calves from 13 dairy farms.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study. Each calf sequentially underwent arterial blood gas evaluation, WISC score, venous sampling, and TUS. Calves were grouped based on a single diagnostic method and combination of WISC and 2 TUS cutoffs (≥1 cm; ≥3 cm) as healthy, upper respiratory tract infection, subclinical BP, and clinical BP.

RESULTS

Oxygenation and acid-base variables were unaffected. Glucose concentration in TUS-affected calves was significantly lower (P < .001) than in healthy calves (median ≥TUS1cm = 5.2 mmol/L 25%-75% interquartile range [IQR] 4.5-6.1,

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Clinical signs indicate minor systemic disorders compared to TUS. The abnormalities detected by ultrasonographic examination were moderate and did not deviate from normal reference ranges.

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Key Words

• blood gas analysis
• calves
• clinical signs
• respiratory disease
• thoracic ultrasonography

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MESH Headings

• Animals
• Cattle
• Cross-Sectional Studies
• Cattle Diseases/diagnostic imaging
• Cattle Diseases/blood
• Bronchopneumonia/veterinary
• Bronchopneumonia/diagnostic imaging
• Bronchopneumonia/blood
• Blood Gas Analysis/veterinary
• Ultrasonography/veterinary
• Female
• Male
• Blood Glucose/analysis

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Grants

• University of Milan
• University of Milan

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Affiliation(s)

Antonio Boccardo Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali (DIVAS)Università degli Studi di MilanoLodiItaly
Vincenzo Ferrulli Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali (DIVAS)Università degli Studi di MilanoLodiItaly
Giulia Sala Dipartimento di Scienze VeterinarieUniversità degli Studi di PisaSan Piero a GradoItaly
Donatella Scavone Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali (DIVAS)Università degli Studi di MilanoLodiItaly
Saverio Paltrinieri Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali (DIVAS)Università degli Studi di MilanoLodiItaly
Laura Filippone Pavesi Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali (DIVAS)Università degli Studi di MilanoLodiItaly
Davide Pravettoni Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria e Scienze Animali (DIVAS)Università degli Studi di MilanoLodiItaly

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Comparison of physiological markers, behavior monitoring, and clinical illness scoring as indicators of an inflammatory response in beef cattle

Clinical illness (CI) scoring using visual observation is the most widely applied method of detecting respiratory disease in cattle but has limited effectiveness in practice. In contrast, body-mounted sensor technology effectively facilitates disease detection. To evaluate whether a combination of movement behavior and CI scoring is effective for disease detection, cattle were vaccinated to induce a temporary inflammatory immune response. Cattle were evaluated before and after vaccination to identify the CI variables that are most indicative of sick cattle. Respiratory rate (H2 = 43.08, P < 0.0001), nasal discharge (H2 = 8.35, P = 0.015), and ocular discharge (H2 = 16.38, P = 0.0003) increased after vaccination, and rumen fill decreased (H2 = 20.10, P < 0.0001). Locomotor activity was measured via leg-mounted sensors for the four days preceding and seven days following vaccination. A statistical model that included temperature, steps, lying time, respiratory rate, rumen fill, head position, and excess saliva was developed to distinguish between scores from before and after vaccination with a sensitivity of 0.898 and specificity of 0.915. Several clinical illness signs were difficult to measure in practice. Binoculars were required for scoring respiratory rate and eye-related metrics, and cattle had to be fitted with colored collars for individual identification. Scoring each animal took up to three minutes in a small research pen; therefore, technologies that can automate both behavior monitoring and identification of clinical illness signs are key to improving capacity for BRD detection and treatment.

Identifying and addressing barriers and opportunities for bovine respiratory disease complex vaccination: a consensus paper on practical recommendations for best practise vaccination

Many questions are raised, and challenges faced in the new era of (intranasal) bovine respiratory disease complex vaccination. An increase in vaccination rate is expected, due to its positive impact on cattle health, reduction of antimicrobial use and economic factors. However, engagement of farmers and veterinarians with regard to vaccination is often affected by limitations, resulting in the development of barriers to vaccination, but also opportunities to overcome these. The objective of the report is to provide practical recommendations and a consensus on best practises for BRDC vaccination, addressing barriers faced by veterinarians and farmers. The report combines an evidence review with expert opinions and includes discussions on different vaccination approaches, such as intranasal and systemic protocols. As result of the discussions, several barriers to BRDC vaccination were identified, including a lack of knowledge or visibility of the disease's impact, the preference for blanket antibiotic use over vaccination, resistance to change, the need for visible success, uncertainty about the best time to vaccinate, and concerns about adverse reactions and vaccine efficacy in the presence of maternal antibodies. While these barriers seem substantial, they provide opportunities for the veterinary sector. Indeed, veterinarians are encouraged to use the argumentation presented, along with local case studies and diagnostic testing to highlight the impact of disease, while conducting calf health audits, ensuring expectations are managed to achieve visible success. Overall, this consensus paper aims to provide practical recommendations and support for veterinarians and farmers to overcome barriers and increase BRDC vaccination rates in cattle.

Comparative diagnoses of respiratory disease in preweaned dairy calves using sequential thoracic ultrasonography and clinical respiratory scoring

AIMS

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) has serious impacts on dairy production and animal welfare. It is most commonly diagnosed based on clinical respiratory signs (CRS), but in recent years, thoracic ultrasonography (TUS) has emerged as a diagnostic tool with improved sensitivity and specificity. This study aimed to assess the alignment of BRD diagnoses based on a Clinical Respiratory Scoring Chart (CRSC) and weekly TUS findings throughout the progression of BRD of variable severity in preweaned Holstein dairy heifers.

METHODS

A total of 60 calves on two farms were followed from the 2nd week of life through the 11th week of life and assessed on a weekly basis for CRS and lung consolidation via TUS. The alignment of BRD diagnoses based on CRSC scores and TUS findings was evaluated across disease progression (pre-consolidation, onset, chronic, or recovered) and severity (lobular or lobar lung consolidation) using receiver operator curves and area under the curves combined with Cohen's kappa (κ), sensitivity, and specificity.

RESULTS

The diagnosis of BRD using CRSC scores ≥5 aligned best with the onset of lobar lung consolidation (>1 cm in width and full thickness). This equated to an acceptable level of discrimination (AUC = 0.76), fair agreement (κ = 0.37), and a sensitivity of 29% and specificity of 99%. Similarly, there was acceptable discrimination (AUC = 0.70) and fair agreement (κ = 0.33) between CRSC ≥5 and the onset of a less severe threshold of disease based on lobular (1-3 cm2 but not full thickness) or lobar consolidation. Discrimination remained acceptable (AUC = 0.71) with fair agreement (κ = 0.28) between CRSC scores ≥2 for nasal discharge and/or cough (spontaneous or induced) and the onset of lobar consolidation. However, sensitivity was <40% across comparisons and outside of the onset of disease there tended to be poor discrimination, slight agreement, and lowered sensitivity between CRS and TUS diagnoses of lobular or lobar consolidation (pre-consolidation, chronic, or recovered). Conversely, specificity was relatively high (≥92%) across comparisons suggesting that CRSC diagnoses indicative of BRD and associated lung consolidation tend to result in few false positive diagnoses and accurate identification of healthy animals.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Although we found the specificity of clinical signs for diagnosing lung consolidation to be ≥92% across all methods of TUS evaluations, the low levels of sensitivity dictate that clinical assessments lead to many false negative diagnoses. Consequently, depending on clinical signs alone to diagnose BRD within populations of dairy calves will likely result in overlooking a substantial proportion of subclinically affected animals that could inform the success of treatment and prevention protocols and guide management decisions.

Accuracy and inter-rater agreement among practitioners using quick thoracic ultrasonography to diagnose calf pneumonia

BACKGROUND

Thoracic ultrasonography (TUS) is a commonly used tool for on-farm detection of pneumonia in calves. Different scanning methods have been described, but the performance of novice practitioners after training has not been documented.

METHODS

In this study, 38 practitioners performed quick TUS (qTUS) on 18-23 calves each. Pneumonia was defined as lung consolidation 1 cm or more in depth. Diagnostic parameters (accuracy [Acc], sensitivity [Se] and specificity [Sp]) were compared to those of an experienced operator. Cohen's kappa and Krippendorff's alpha (Kalpha) were determined. The potential effects of training and exam sessions on performance were evaluated.

RESULTS

The average relative Se and Sp were 0.66 (standard deviation [SD] = 0.26; minimum [Min.]-Maximum [Max.] = 0-1) and 0.71 (SD = 0.19; Min.-Max. = 0.25-1), respectively. The average relative Acc was 0.73 (SD = 0.11; Min.-Max. = 0.52-0.96). Over all sessions, Cohen's kappa averaged 0.40 (SD = 0.24; Min.-Max. = 0.014-0.90) and Kalpha was 0.24 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.20-0.27), indicating 'fair' agreement. Calf age and housing influenced Se and Sp. Supervised practical training improved Se by 17.5% (95% CI: 0.01-0.34).

LIMITATIONS

The separate effects of calf age and housing could not be determined.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that qTUS, like any other clinical skill, has a learning curve, and variability in performance can be substantial. Adequate training and certification of one's skill are recommended to assure good diagnostic accuracy.

Strategies for Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) Diagnosis and Prognosis: A Comprehensive Overview

Despite significant advances in vaccination strategies and antibiotic therapy, bovine respiratory disease (BRD) continues to be the leading disease affecting the global cattle industry. The etiology of BRD is complex, often involving multiple microbial agents, which lead to intricate interactions between the host immune system and pathogens during various beef production stages. These interactions present environmental, social, and geographical challenges. Accurate diagnosis is essential for effective disease management. Nevertheless, correct identification of BRD cases remains a daunting challenge for animal health technicians in feedlots. In response to current regulations, there is a growing interest in refining clinical diagnoses of BRD to curb the overuse of antimicrobials. This shift marks a pivotal first step toward establishing a structured diagnostic framework for this disease. This review article provides an update on recent developments and future perspectives in clinical diagnostics and prognostic techniques for BRD, assessing their benefits and limitations. The methods discussed include the evaluation of clinical signs and animal behavior, biomarker analysis, molecular diagnostics, ultrasound imaging, and prognostic modeling. While some techniques show promise as standalone diagnostics, it is likely that a multifaceted approach-leveraging a combination of these methods-will yield the most accurate diagnosis of BRD.

Comparison and interobserver reliability between a visual analog scale and the Wisconsin Calf Health Scoring Chart for detection of respiratory disease in dairy calves

Respiratory disease is an ongoing challenge for calves in the dairy sector with a relatively high prevalence and impact on welfare and economics. Applying scoring protocols for detecting respiratory disease requires that they are easily implemented, consistent between observers and fast to use in daily management. This study was conducted in one Danish dairy farm from September 2020 through January 2021. The study included 126 heifer calves enrolled in the age of 17 to 24 d. All calves were observed every second day for a period of 46 d. At each visit all calves were scored with a new visual analog scale (VAS) and the Wisconsin Calf Health Scoring Chart (WCHSC). We calculated agreement between the 2 scoring systems based on conditional probability to score higher or lower than a cutoff in the VAS compared with a specified cutoff in WCHSC used as reference test. A generalized mixed effects regression model was developed to estimate the prevalence of respiratory disease and the overall agreement between the 2 scoring systems. The overall agreement between the VAS and WCHSC was 89.6%. The second part of the study assessed interobserver reliability between 2 experienced observers and between an experienced observer and veterinary students. The interobserver reliability was calculated by intraclass correlation coefficient and was 0.58 between experienced observers and was 0.34 between an experienced observer and veterinary students indicating a moderate to poor reliability between the observers. It was possible to use VAS as an alternative clinical scoring method, which primarily focuses on the general condition of the individual calf rather than specific categories of clinical signs. Our study set up lacked a comparison to other diagnostic tools i.e., thoracic ultrasound to confirm the findings which should be considered in future studies when exploring VAS as a screening tool for detection of respiratory disease in dairy calves.

Literature Review of the Principal Diagnostic Tests to Detect Bovine Respiratory Disease in Pre-Weaned Dairy and Veal Calves

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is an infection of the upper and lower respiratory tract, characterized by an inflammation of the lung. Different diagnostic tests can be used to detect BRD, including clinical respiratory scoring systems, thoracic auscultation, and imaging tests like thoracic ultrasonography and thoracic radiography. Although commonly used, none of these diagnostic tests are perfect for detecting BRD. This article reviews the advantages and drawbacks of these techniques and their performance in detecting BRD in pre-weaned dairy and veal calves.

Short communication: Circadian variations and day-to-day variability of clinical signs used for the early diagnosis of pneumonia within and between calves

For rational antimicrobial use, a timely and correct diagnosis of bovine respiratory disease, especially pneumonia, in calves is required. Current approaches often rely on clinical signs observed at a single time point, and do not take potential diurnal patterns in the manifestation of these clinical signs into account. Therefore, the aim of this pilot study was to investigate how clinical signs utilized for the (early) detection of pneumonia vary both within and between calves, throughout the day and across days. A longitudinal study was conducted in which 36 pre-weaned Holstein-Friesian calves were clinically examined eight times over the course of 48 h. The following parameters were considered: respiratory rate, type of respiration, dyspnea, stridor, induced cough (trachea reflex), spontaneous cough, eye and nasal discharge, ear positions, head tilt, rectal temperature, diarrhea, milk residue, body posture, Wisconsin and Davis BRD scorecard. The advent of thoracic ultrasonography (TUS) enables detection of (sub)clinical pneumonia in a more reliable way, compared to the diagnosis based solely on clinical signs. In this study, 14% (5/36) of the calves had an ultrasound confirmed pneumonia (consolidation ≥1 cm in depth). No variations were observed in the prevalence of clinical signs at the various time points of the day. However, we did observe a difference in the manifestation of clinical signs in individual calves (intra) and between (inter) them. Due to the significant intra-calf variability, diagnosing pneumonia based solely on a single observation of clinical signs, is likely to be insufficient. Hence, misdiagnosis might lead to incorrect use of antimicrobials.

Effect of on-arrival bovine respiratory disease vaccination on ultrasound-confirmed pneumonia and production parameters in male dairy calves: A randomized clinical trial

The high degree of commingling and accumulation of stressors during and after transport makes prevention of bovine respiratory disease (BRD) extremely challenging in the veal and dairy beef industry. Upon arrival, vaccination for agents involved in BRD is practically most achievable, but its efficacy under such conditions in dairy veal calves is unknown. Given the high prevalence of subclinical pneumonia in these settings, the primary objective of the present study was to determine the effect of 2 vaccination protocols administered upon arrival against bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV), bovine parainfluenza type 3 virus (BPI-3), and Mannheimia haemolytica on clinical BRD and lung ultrasonographic findings in dairy veal calves. In addition, the effects of vaccination on average daily live weight gain and cold carcass weight were determined. In this randomized clinical trial, 443 male dairy calves were assigned to one of 3 groups: a negative, placebo-controlled group (n = 151), a vaccination group with 2 subcutaneous injections 4 wk apart with an inactivated vaccine containing BRSV, BPI-3, and M. haemolytica (parenteral [PE] group; n = 149) and a second vaccination group receiving an intranasal live-attenuated vaccine containing BRSV and BPI-3 and 2 subcutaneous vaccinations with the same inactivated vaccine as the PE vaccination group (intranasal-parenteral [IN-PE] group; n = 143). Clinical scoring and quick thoracic ultrasonography (qTUS) were performed on all calves on arrival (wk 0), at the peak of respiratory disease (outbreak; wk 1), at the end of the first antimicrobial group treatment (wk 3), and at a long-term evaluation point (wk 10). Culture and nanopore sequencing on nonendoscopic bronchoalveolar lavage (nBAL) samples were used to identify pathogens involved in the outbreak. Upon arrival, 15.1% of the calves had lung consolidation ≥1cm and incidence quickly rose to 42.8% during the outbreak. In both the PE and IN-PE group, the odds of pneumonia in wk 10 were reduced by 62% (odds ratio [OR] = 0.38; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.23-0.64) and 41% (OR = 0.59; 95% CI = 0.37-0.96), respectively. Short-term cure rate (50.3%), as determined immediately after the first group antimicrobial treatment, was not influenced by vaccination. In contrast, long-term cure rate, determined at wk 10, was affected by vaccination with higher cure in the PE group compared with the control group (69.4% vs. 51.2%; OR = 2.2; 95% CI = 1.1-5.0). Average daily gain in the first 10 wk of production was not affected by vaccination. Vaccination resulted in an increase in cold carcass weight of 3.5 and 4.3 kg in the PE (95% CI = -0.9-7.9) and IN-PE group (95% CI = -0.17-8.7), respectively. In conclusion, under the conditions of the present study, vaccination upon arrival resulted in a reduced prevalence of pneumonia at wk 10 of production, likely caused both by an improved cure rate of secondary infections and a reduced incidence of new cases between outbreak and long-term evaluation. The present protocol, using qTUS for pneumonia detection and nBAL diagnostics for pathogen identification adds a new dimension to randomized clinical trials on respiratory disease in calves.

Bayesian evaluation of the accuracy of a thoracic auscultation scoring system in dairy calves with bronchopneumonia using a standard lung sound nomenclature

BACKGROUND

Although thoracic auscultation (AUSC) in calves is quick and easy to perform, the definition of lung sounds is highly variable and leads to poor to moderate accuracy in diagnosing bronchopneumonia (BP).

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

Evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of an AUSC scoring system based on a standard lung sound nomenclature at different cut-off values, accounting for the absence of a gold standard test for BP diagnosis.

ANIMALS

Three hundred thirty-one calves.

METHODS

We considered the following pathological lung sounds: increased breath sounds (score 1), wheezes and crackles (score 2), increased bronchial sounds (score 3), and pleural friction rubs (score 4). Thoracic auscultation was categorized as AUSC1 (positive calves for scores ≥1), AUSC2 (positive calves for scores ≥2), and AUSC3 (positive calves for scores ≥3). The accuracy of AUSC categorizations was determined using 3 imperfect diagnostic tests with a Bayesian latent class model and sensitivity analysis (informative vs weakly informative vs noninformative priors and with vs without covariance between ultrasound and clinical scoring).

RESULTS

Based on the priors used, the sensitivity (95% Bayesian confidence interval [BCI]) of AUSC1 ranged from 0.89 (0.80-0.97) to 0.95 (0.86-0.99), with a specificity (95% BCI) of 0.54 (0.45-0.71) to 0.60 (0.47-0.94). Removing increased breath sounds from the categorizations resulted in increased specificity (ranging between 0.97 [0.93-0.99] and 0.98 [0.94-0.99] for AUSC3) at the cost of decreased sensitivity (0.66 [0.54-0.78] to 0.81 [0.65-0.97]).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

A standardized definition of lung sounds improved AUSC accuracy for BP diagnosis in calves.

Can We Reliably Detect Respiratory Diseases through Precision Farming? A Systematic Review

Respiratory diseases commonly affect livestock species, negatively impacting animal's productivity and welfare. The use of precision livestock farming (PLF) applied in respiratory disease detection has been developed for several species. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate if PLF technologies can reliably monitor clinical signs or detect cases of respiratory diseases. A technology was considered reliable if high performance was achieved (sensitivity > 90% and specificity or precision > 90%) under field conditions and using a reliable reference test. Risk of bias was assessed, and only technologies tested in studies with low risk of bias were considered reliable. From 23 studies included-swine (13), poultry (6), and bovine (4) -only three complied with our reliability criteria; however, two of these were considered to have a high risk of bias. Thus, only one swine technology fully fit our criteria. Future studies should include field tests and use previously validated reference tests to assess technology's performance. In conclusion, relying completely on PLF for monitoring respiratory diseases is still a challenge, though several technologies are promising, having high performance in field tests.

Literature Review on Technological Applications to Monitor and Evaluate Calves' Health and Welfare

Precision livestock farming (PLF) research is rapidly increasing and has improved farmers' quality of life, animal welfare, and production efficiency. PLF research in dairy calves is still relatively recent but has grown in the last few years. Automatic milk feeding systems (AMFS) and 3D accelerometers have been the most extensively used technologies in dairy calves. However, other technologies have been emerging in dairy calves' research, such as infrared thermography (IRT), 3D cameras, ruminal bolus, and sound analysis systems, which have not been properly validated and reviewed in the scientific literature. Thus, with this review, we aimed to analyse the state-of-the-art of technological applications in calves, focusing on dairy calves. Most of the research is focused on technology to detect and predict calves' health problems and monitor pain indicators. Feeding and lying behaviours have sometimes been associated with health and welfare levels. However, a consensus opinion is still unclear since other factors, such as milk allowance, can affect these behaviours differently. Research that employed a multi-technology approach showed better results than research focusing on only a single technique. Integrating and automating different technologies with machine learning algorithms can offer more scientific knowledge and potentially help the farmers improve calves' health, performance, and welfare, if commercial applications are available, which, from the authors' knowledge, are not at the moment.

Prevalence of respiratory disease in Irish preweaned dairy calves using hierarchical Bayesian latent class analysis

Introduction

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) has a significant impact on the health and welfare of dairy calves. It can result in increased antimicrobial usage, decreased growth rate and reduced future productivity. There is no gold standard antemortem diagnostic test for BRD in calves and no estimates of the prevalence of respiratory disease in seasonal calving dairy herds.

Methods

To estimate BRD prevalence in seasonal calving dairy herds in Ireland, 40 dairy farms were recruited and each farm was visited once during one of two calving seasons (spring 2020 & spring 2021). At that visit the prevalence of BRD in 20 calves between 4 and 6 weeks of age was determined using thoracic ultrasound score (≥3) and the Wisconsin respiratory scoring system (≥5). Hierarchical Bayesian latent class analysis was used to estimate the calf-level true prevalence of BRD, and the within-herd prevalence distribution, accounting for the imperfect nature of both diagnostic tests.

Results

In total, 787 calves were examined, of which 58 (7.4%) had BRD as defined by a Wisconsin respiratory score ≥5 only, 37 (4.7%) had BRD as defined by a thoracic ultrasound score of ≥3 only and 14 (1.8%) calves had BRD based on both thoracic ultrasound and clinical scoring. The primary model assumed both tests were independent and used informed priors for test characteristics. Using this model the true prevalence of BRD was estimated as 4%, 95% Bayesian credible interval (BCI) (1%, 8%). This prevalence estimate is lower or similar to those found in other dairy production systems. Median within herd prevalence varied from 0 to 22%. The prevalence estimate was not sensitive to whether the model was constructed with the tests considered conditionally dependent or independent. When the case definition for thoracic ultrasound was changed to a score ≥2, the prevalence estimate increased to 15% (95% BCI: 6%, 27%).

Discussion

The prevalence of calf respiratory disease, however defined, was low, but highly variable, in these seasonal calving dairy herds.

Welfare of cattle during transport

In the framework of its Farm to Fork Strategy, the Commission is undertaking a comprehensive evaluation of the animal welfare legislation. The present Opinion deals with protection of cattle (including calves) during transport. Welfare of cattle during transport by road is the main focus, but other means of transport are also covered. Current practices related to transport of cattle during the different stages (preparation, loading/unloading, transit and journey breaks) are described. Overall, 11 welfare consequences were identified as being highly relevant for the welfare of cattle during transport based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: group stress, handling stress, heat stress, injuries, motion stress, prolonged hunger, prolonged thirst, respiratory disorders, restriction of movement, resting problems and sensory overstimulation. These welfare consequences and their animal-based measures are described. A variety of hazards, mainly relating to inexperienced/untrained handlers, inappropriate handling, structural deficiencies of vehicles and facilities, poor driving conditions, unfavourable microclimatic and environmental conditions, and poor husbandry practices leading to these welfare consequences were identified. The Opinion contains general and specific conclusions relating to the different stages of transport for cattle. Recommendations to prevent hazards and to correct or mitigate welfare consequences have been developed. Recommendations were also developed to define quantitative thresholds for microclimatic conditions within the means of transport and spatial thresholds (minimum space allowance). The development of welfare consequences over time was assessed in relation to maximum journey duration. The Opinion covers specific animal transport scenarios identified by the European Commission relating to transport of unweaned calves, cull cows, the export of cattle by livestock vessels, the export of cattle by road, roll-on-roll-off ferries and 'special health status animals', and lists welfare concerns associated with these.

The Prevalence, Coexistence, and Correlations between Seven Pathogens Detected by a PCR Method from South-Western Poland Dairy Cattle Suffering from Bovine Respiratory Disease

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is a very important disease that contributes to economic losses in dairy and beef cattle breeding worldwide. The molecular testing of material from 296 calves showing BRD symptoms from 74 dairy herds located in south-western Poland was performed in 2019–2021. Molecular tests were performed using a commercial kit “VetMAXTM Ruminant Respiratory Screening Kit” (Thermo Fisher Scientific) for the simultaneous detection of genetic material of seven pathogens responsible for BRD. At least one pathogen was detected in 95.95% of herds. The overall prevalence was: Pasteurella multocida 87.84%, Mannheimia haemolytica 44.59%, bovine coronavirus (BcoV) 32.43%, Mycoplasma bovis 29.73%, Histophilus somni 28.38%, bovine parainfluenza virus type 3 (BPIV-3) 13.51%, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) 10.81%. Twenty-nine configurations of pathogen occurrences were found. Bacterial infections were the most frequently recorded as 56.7% of all results. Coinfections mainly consisted of two pathogens. Not a single purely viral coinfection was detected. The most frequent result was a single P. multocida infection accounting for 18.31% of all results. The statistically significant correlation (p = 0.001) with the highest strength of effect (ϕ 0.38) was between M. bovis and H. somni.