1
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Crandall KA, Pease BS, Simmons AL, Adamovicz LA, Cove MV. Raccoon Roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) Undetected in Endangered Key Largo Woodrat (Neotoma floridana smalli) Endemic Range. J Wildl Dis 2023; 59:536-538. [PMID: 37170425 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-22-00133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) negatively affects woodrat (Neotoma spp.) populations but is not known to occur in the endemic range of endangered Key Largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli). Rectal swabs from 23 raccoons (Procyon lotor) in Key Largo were screened for raccoon roundworm by PCR. All tests were negative, suggesting continued absence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Crandall
- Forestry Program, Southern Illinois University, 1205 Lincoln Drive, Carbondale, Illinois 62901, USA
| | - Brent S Pease
- Forestry Program, Southern Illinois University, 1205 Lincoln Drive, Carbondale, Illinois 62901, USA
| | - Amber L Simmons
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois, 2001 S Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61802, USA
| | - Laura A Adamovicz
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois, 2001 S Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, Illinois 61802, USA
| | - Michael V Cove
- Mammal Unit, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, 11 W Jones Street, Raleigh, North Carolina 27601, USA
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2
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Louis MM, Minter LJ, Flowers JR, Stoskopf MK, Kennedy-Stoskopf S. Raccoon roundworm prevalence ( Baylisascaris procyonis) at the North Carolina Zoo, USA. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9426. [PMID: 32742774 PMCID: PMC7377244 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis is an important zoonotic nematode of raccoons (Procyon lotor). Infection with this parasite has important health implications for humans, zoo animals, and free-ranging wildlife. As a large, natural habitat zoo, the North Carolina Zoo (NC Zoo) coexists with native wildlife. Raccoons are abundant at the NC Zoo and the prevalence of B. procyonis is unknown. Raccoon latrines were located through employee reporting and systematic searching throughout the zoo and sampled for B. procyonis in October and November of 2018 and 2019. Parasite prevalence, latrine location, substrate category and latrine persistence were recorded. Thirty-three latrines were located in 2018 and eight new latrines in 2019 while four latrines from the prior year were no longer available to be sampled. Of the 29 latrines sampled over the two years, 16 (55%) persisted for at least one year. The majority of the latrines were found on natural substrate with rock showing the highest preference. Just over half (n = 21 of 41 total) of the active latrines in the study were in or immediately adjacent to animal enclosures. Two latrines were found in public areas including one contaminating children’s play equipment. Additionally, fresh fecal samples were collected from five adult raccoons presented to the zoo’s veterinary clinic in 2018 and 2019. All fecal samples tested by centrifugal flotation for both years were negative for B. procyonis. The results of this study show the value of field sampling to properly assess risk and enable informed decision-making regarding public health and wildlife management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan M Louis
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, United States of America.,Environmental Medicine Consortium, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
| | - Larry J Minter
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, United States of America.,Environmental Medicine Consortium, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America.,Hanes Veterinary Medical Center, North Carolina Zoo, Asheboro, NC, United States of America
| | - James R Flowers
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
| | - Michael K Stoskopf
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, United States of America.,Environmental Medicine Consortium, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
| | - Suzanne Kennedy-Stoskopf
- Department of Clinical Sciences, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC, United States of America.,Environmental Medicine Consortium, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
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3
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Biedrzycka A, Konopiński M, Hoffman E, Trujillo A, Zalewski A. Comparing raccoon major histocompatibility complex diversity in native and introduced ranges: Evidence for the importance of functional immune diversity for adaptation and survival in novel environments. Evol Appl 2020; 13:752-767. [PMID: 32211065 PMCID: PMC7086054 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The adaptive potential of invasive species is related to the genetic diversity of the invader, which is influenced by genetic drift and natural selection. Typically, the genetic diversity of invaders is studied with neutral genetic markers; however, the expectation of reduced diversity has not been consistently supported by empirical studies. Here, we describe and interpret genetic diversity at both neutral microsatellite loci and the immune-related MHC-DRB locus of native and invasive populations of raccoon to better understand of how drift and selection impact patterns of genetic diversity during the invasion process. We found that despite the loss of many MHC (major histocompatibility complex) alleles in comparison with native populations, functional MHC supertypes are preserved in the invasive region. In the native raccoon population, the number of supertypes within individuals was higher than expected under a neutral model. The high level of individual functional divergence may facilitate the adaptation to local conditions in the invasive range. In the invasive populations, we also detected increased population structure at microsatellites compared to the MHC locus, further suggesting that balancing selection is acting on adaptively important regions of the raccoon genome. Finally, we found that alleles known to exhibit resistance to rabies in the native range, Prlo-DRB*4, Prlo-DRB*16 and Prlo-DRB*102, were the most common alleles in the European populations, suggesting directional selection is acting on this locus. Our research shows empirical support for the importance of functional immune diversity for adaptation and survival in novel environments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maciej Konopiński
- Institute of Nature ConservationPolish Academy of SciencesKrakówPoland
| | - Eric Hoffman
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Central FloridaOrlandoFLUSA
| | - Alexa Trujillo
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Central FloridaOrlandoFLUSA
| | - Andrzej Zalewski
- Mammal Research InstitutePolish Academy of SciencesBiałowieżaPoland
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4
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Straif-Bourgeois S, Cloherty E, Balsamo G, Gee L, Riegel C. Prevalence of Baylisascaris procyonis in Raccoons Trapped in New Orleans, Louisiana, 2014-2017. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2019; 20:22-26. [PMID: 31414972 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis, the raccoon roundworm, is considered an emerging zoonotic disease in the United States after being identified in raccoons captured in different US regions and metropolitan areas. Humans can become infected with B. procyonis after ingesting mature roundworm eggs, sometimes resulting in fatal disease or severe sequelae in these patients. The first reported human Baylisascaris case in New Orleans raised concerns that very little was known about this zoonotic disease in the increasing urban raccoon population. Therefore, the study aim was to estimate the prevalence of Baylisascaris-infected raccoons in New Orleans, LA. Raccoons were trapped based on nuisance calls from the public and in areas where raccoons had been sighted. Necropsies were performed to identify B. procyonis adult worms in intestines and fecal samples were examined for roundworm ova. Study findings showed that 38.5% of New Orleans raccoons were infected with B. procyonis, defined by the presence of adult B. procyonis worms or Baylisascaris ova in their feces. Twenty-four of 65 raccoons (36.9%) had raccoon roundworms in their intestines and 31.7% of the fecal samples were positive for B. procyonis eggs. Mapping B. procyonis-infected raccoons by trapping location showed that infected raccoons were found throughout the city. In conclusion, the high prevalence rate of B. procyonis in New Orleans raccoons demonstrates the importance of educating the public and health care professionals about potential health risks and providing resources to prevent exposure to infective eggs from raccoon latrines. Furthermore, this emerging disease should be further studied to examine human risk of infection in increasing raccoon populations in metropolitan areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Straif-Bourgeois
- School of Public Health, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Erin Cloherty
- City of New Orleans Mosquito, Termite and Rodent Control Board, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Gary Balsamo
- Louisiana Department of Health, Office of Public Health, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Laura Gee
- Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
| | - Claudia Riegel
- City of New Orleans Mosquito, Termite and Rodent Control Board, New Orleans, Louisiana
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5
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French SK, Pearl DL, Peregrine AS, Jardine CM. Baylisascaris procyonis infection in raccoons: A review of demographic and environmental factors influencing parasite carriage. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2019; 16:100275. [PMID: 31027589 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2019.100275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis, the roundworm of raccoons (Procyon lotor), is an emerging helminthic zoonosis in North America. Since the larval form is capable of causing neurological disease in more than 150 species of birds and mammals including humans, understanding factors that influence carriage of the parasite by raccoons is important for mitigating risk. This review examines the current literature to identify major demographic and environmental risk factors associated with B. procyonis carriage in wild raccoons. Raccoon age and season of sample collection were most commonly identified as risk factors, with increased prevalence found in juvenile animals and when sample collection occurred in the fall. Human urbanization and agricultural land use were also observed as potential risk factors; however, there are inconsistencies in the direction of influence these risk factors have on the prevalence of infection. Further investigation into the role of environmental risk factors is required to better understand how human activities influence parasite carriage in raccoons. Additionally, future research using multivariable statistical models guided by epidemiological principles to control for confounding variables and identify interaction effects will help clarify the effect of these demographic and environmental factors. Developing a better understanding of the primary risk factors for parasite carriage in raccoons will help identify areas of higher risk for environmental contamination and will aid in the development and refinement of education and management programs to reduce the risk of human exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon K French
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - David L Pearl
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Andrew S Peregrine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Claire M Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada; Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
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6
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Sapp SGH, Murray B, Hoover ER, Green GT, Yabsley MJ. Raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) as an occupational hazard: 2. Use of personal protective equipment and infection control practices among raccoon rehabilitators. Zoonoses Public Health 2018; 65:490-500. [PMID: 29603886 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis, the raccoon roundworm, is a zoonotic ascarid of importance to human and animal health. Wildlife rehabilitators who care for raccoons may be at an increased risk for exposure to the parasite, especially if proper precautions are not taken. In a wider effort to evaluate awareness regarding B. procyonis in the wildlife rehabilitation community, an online survey (38-39 questions) including questions about B. procyonis knowledge and attitudes was developed and administered to wildlife rehabilitators. To assess precautions taken among raccoon rehabilitators, participants who rehabilitated raccoons (n = 447) answered additional questions about use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and infection control practices (ICPs). Reported use of gloves was variable, but hand hygiene was generally consistent. Masks and gowns were seldom used. Part-time or infrequent volunteers and rehabilitators located in the Central, Midwest and Southeast were significantly less likely to report consistent use of PPE. A total knowledge score from the survey was used to predict the likelihood of reporting the use of particular ICPs/PPE. Knowledge score had a highly significant but small effect on the likelihood of prophylactic use of anthelmintics, anthelmintics use for B. procyonis specifically, cleaning appropriately, and using species-dedicated housing. Risk factor analysis was performed on data from a prior serologic survey to evaluate factors associated with exposure to B. procyonis and inconsistent handwashing after contact with live raccoons and their faeces; practising rehabilitation in B. procyonis hyperendemic regions and practising rehabilitation in the western region were significant risk factors for being seropositive. These data further demonstrate that correct PPE/ICPs are critical in mitigating the risk of B. procyonis exposure among raccoon rehabilitators and among other captive species.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G H Sapp
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - B Murray
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - E R Hoover
- National Environmental Health Association, Denver, CO, USA
| | - G T Green
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - M J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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7
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Sapp SGH, Rascoe LN, Wilkins PP, Handali S, Gray EB, Eberhard M, Woodhall DM, Montgomery SP, Bailey KL, Lankau EW, Yabsley MJ. Baylisascaris procyonis Roundworm Seroprevalence among Wildlife Rehabilitators, United States and Canada, 2012-2015. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 22:2128-2131. [PMID: 27869612 PMCID: PMC5189140 DOI: 10.3201/eid2212.160467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis roundworms can cause potentially fatal neural larva migrans in many species, including humans. However, the clinical spectrum of baylisascariasis is not completely understood. We tested 347 asymptomatic adult wildlife rehabilitators for B. procyonis antibodies; 24 were positive, suggesting that subclinical baylisascariasis is occurring among this population.
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8
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Sapp SGH, Murray BA, Hoover ER, Green GT, Yabsley MJ. Raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) as an occupational hazard: 1. Knowledge of B. procyonis and attitudes towards it and other zoonoses among wildlife rehabilitators. Zoonoses Public Health 2017; 65:e130-e142. [PMID: 29124901 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Wildlife rehabilitators are at risk of zoonotic diseases because they often have prolonged contact with many species of wildlife and their bodily fluids. Raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) is a common zoonotic parasite of raccoons that has the potential to cause severe or fatal neurologic disease in a broad variety of hosts if the eggs within raccoon faeces are ingested. We administered an online survey to wildlife rehabilitators to assess their knowledge regarding aspects of transmission, biology and disease caused by B. procyonis, and also to evaluate attitudes towards wildlife diseases and B. procyonis as an occupational hazard. Knowledge was assessed using multiple choice and true-false questions; attitudes were measured using Likert-type items. A total of 659 complete or near-complete responses (missing fewer than three knowledge or attitudes items and/or non-response to some demographic fields) were collected. The median knowledge score was 7/14 questions correct (range: 0-14 correct). Generally, individuals with higher levels of education and rehabilitation experience, veterinary professionals and those who are members of professional wildlife rehabilitation groups scored above the median significantly more often (p < .01). Significantly more rehabilitators who were located in the south-east and those with part-time or infrequent commitments scored below the median overall knowledge score. There was general agreement that B. procyonis is a health risk of rehabilitators and that measures should be taken to control transmission to people and animals. Some factors explaining differences in attitudes include setting of rehabilitation (home versus animal care facility), veterinary profession, region, membership in a wildlife rehabilitation group and rehabilitation of raccoons. Findings emphasize the importance of awareness and mentorship to inform rehabilitators on the potential risks of B. procyonis and other potential zoonoses within captive wildlife settings, and the important role of professional wildlife rehabilitator groups in disseminating educational materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G H Sapp
- Department of Population Health, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - B A Murray
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - E R Hoover
- National Environmental Health Association, Denver, CO, USA
| | - G T Green
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - M J Yabsley
- Department of Population Health, Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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9
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BAYLISASCARIS PROCYONISLARVA MIGRANS IN TWO CAPTIVE NORTH AMERICAN BEAVERS (CASTOR CANADENSIS). J Zoo Wildl Med 2017; 48:232-236. [DOI: 10.1638/2016-0102.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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10
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Sapp SGH, Weinstein SB, McMahan CS, Yabsley MJ. Variable Infection Dynamics in Four Peromyscus Species Following Experimental Inoculation with Baylisascaris procyonis. J Parasitol 2016; 102:538-544. [DOI: 10.1645/16-57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah G. H. Sapp
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 DW Brooks Dr., Athens, Georgia 30602. Correspondence should be sent to:
| | | | | | - Michael J. Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, University of Georgia, College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 DW Brooks Dr., Athens, Georgia 30602. Correspondence should be sent to:
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11
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Sircar AD, Abanyie F, Blumberg D, Chin-Hong P, Coulter KS, Cunningham D, Huskins WC, Langelier C, Reid M, Scott BJ, Shirley DA, Babik JM, Belova A, Sapp SGH, McAuliffe I, Rivera HN, Yabsley MJ, Montgomery SP. Raccoon Roundworm Infection Associated with Central Nervous System Disease and Ocular Disease - Six States, 2013-2015. MMWR-MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY WEEKLY REPORT 2016; 65:930-3. [PMID: 27608169 DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6535a2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis, predominantly found in raccoons, is a ubiquitous roundworm found throughout North America. Although raccoons are typically asymptomatic when infected with the parasite, the larval form of Baylisascaris procyonis can result in fatal human disease or severe neurologic outcomes if not treated rapidly. In the United States, Baylisascaris procyonis is more commonly enzootic in raccoons in the midwestern and northeastern regions and along the West Coast (1). However, since 2002, infections have been documented in other states (Florida and Georgia) and regions (2). Baylisascariasis is not a nationally notifiable disease in the United States, and little is known about how commonly it occurs or the range of clinical disease in humans. Case reports of seven human baylisascariasis cases in the United States diagnosed by Baylisascaris procyonis immunoblot testing at CDC are described, including review of clinical history and laboratory data. Although all seven patients survived, approximately half were left with severe neurologic deficits. Prevention through close monitoring of children at play, frequent handwashing, and clearing of raccoon latrines (communal sites where raccoons defecate) are critical interventions in curbing Baylisascaris infections. Early treatment of suspected cases is critical to prevent permanent sequelae.
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12
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Graeff-Teixeira C, Morassutti AL, Kazacos KR. Update on Baylisascariasis, a Highly Pathogenic Zoonotic Infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2016; 29:375-99. [PMID: 26960940 PMCID: PMC4786883 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00044-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis, the raccoon roundworm, infects a wide range of vertebrate animals, including humans, in which it causes a particularly severe type of larva migrans. It is an important cause of severe neurologic disease (neural larva migrans [NLM]) but also causes ocular disease (OLM; diffuse unilateral subacute neuroretinitis [DUSN]), visceral larva migrans (VLM), and covert/asymptomatic infections. B. procyonis is common and widespread in raccoons, and there is increasing recognition of human disease, making a clinical consideration of baylisascariasis important. This review provides an update for this disease, especially its clinical relevance and diagnosis, and summarizes the clinical cases of human NLM and VLM known to date. Most diagnosed patients have been young children less than 2 years of age, although the number of older patients diagnosed in recent years has been increasing. The recent development of recombinant antigen-based serodiagnostic assays has aided greatly in the early diagnosis of this infection. Patients recovering with fewer severe sequelae have been reported in recent years, reinforcing the current recommendation that early treatment with albendazole and corticosteroids should be initiated at the earliest suspicion of baylisascariasis. Considering the seriousness of this zoonotic infection, greater public and medical awareness is critical for the prevention and early treatment of human cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Graeff-Teixeira
- Faculdade de Biociências and Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Loureiro Morassutti
- Faculdade de Biociências and Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Kevin R Kazacos
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University College of Veterinary Medicine, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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13
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Gordon CA, McManus DP, Jones MK, Gray DJ, Gobert GN. The Increase of Exotic Zoonotic Helminth Infections: The Impact of Urbanization, Climate Change and Globalization. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2016; 91:311-97. [PMID: 27015952 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Zoonotic parasitic diseases are increasingly impacting human populations due to the effects of globalization, urbanization and climate change. Here we review the recent literature on the most important helminth zoonoses, including reports of incidence and prevalence. We discuss those helminth diseases which are increasing in endemic areas and consider their geographical spread into new regions within the framework of globalization, urbanization and climate change to determine the effect these variables are having on disease incidence, transmission and the associated challenges presented for public health initiatives, including control and elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A Gordon
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Donald P McManus
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Malcolm K Jones
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Darren J Gray
- Research School of Population Health, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Geoffrey N Gobert
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, Infectious Diseases Division, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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14
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Xie Y, Zhou X, Li M, Liu T, Gu X, Wang T, Lai W, Peng X, Yang G. Zoonotic Baylisascaris procyonis roundworms in raccoons, China. Emerg Infect Dis 2015; 20:2170-2. [PMID: 25417741 PMCID: PMC4257832 DOI: 10.3201/eid2012.140970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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15
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EVALUATION OF ANTHELMINTIC FISHMEAL POLYMER BAITS FOR THE CONTROL OF BAYLISASCARIS PROCYONIS IN FREE-RANGING RACCOONS (PROCYON LOTOR). J Wildl Dis 2015; 51:640-50. [DOI: 10.7589/2014-09-236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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16
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Weinstein SB, Lafferty KD. How do humans affect wildlife nematodes? Trends Parasitol 2015; 31:222-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2014] [Revised: 12/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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17
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THE IMPACT OF LAND USE, SEASON, AGE, AND SEX ON THE PREVALENCE AND INTENSITY OFBAYLISASCARIS PROCYONISINFECTIONS IN RACCOONS (PROCYON LOTOR) FROM ONTARIO, CANADA. J Wildl Dis 2014; 50:784-91. [DOI: 10.7589/2013-09-255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Predicting Baylisascaris procyonis roundworm prevalence, presence and abundance in raccoons (Procyon lotor) of southwestern Ohio using landscape features. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-PARASITES AND WILDLIFE 2014; 3:113-7. [PMID: 25161909 PMCID: PMC4142262 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2014.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We discovered that roundworm prevalence varies between adjacent sample sites. Landscape features serve as good predictors of parasite presence, prevalence and abundance. The proportion of landscape modified by agriculture predicts Baylisascaris procyonis prevalence better than any feature.
Raccoon roundworm is a leading cause of a neurological disease known as larva migrans encephalopathy in vertebrates. We determined that roundworm prevalence is significantly lower in Beavercreek Township than other townships surveyed, and that mean patch size and proportion of landscape modified by urbanization or by agriculture are good predictors of roundworm prevalence and abundance in raccoons. The proportion of landscape modified by urbanization was the best predictor of roundworm presence. These data will facilitate predictions regarding roundworm prevalence in areas that have not been previously sampled, and contribute to devising management strategies against the spread of raccoon roundworm.
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Kristen Page L. Parasites and the conservation of small populations: The case of Baylisascaris procyonis. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2013; 2:203-10. [PMID: 24533336 PMCID: PMC3862498 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2013.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Human demands on natural resources result in landscape changes that facilitate the emergence of disease. Most emerging diseases are zoonotic, and some of these pathogens play a role in the decline of vulnerable wildlife species. Baylisascaris procyonis, the common roundworm parasite of raccoons (Procyon lotor), is a well recognized zoonotic infection that has many of the properties associated with a pathogen capable of driving extinction. It is highly non-specific and frequently pathogenic with regard to paratenic hosts, which contact eggs of B. procyonis at raccoon latrines. Eggs accumulate at latrines and remain viable for many years. Transmission of B. procyonis is sensitive to changes in land-use, and fragmented habitats increase contact rates between raccoons, potential paratenic hosts, and the parasite. Raccoons, and subsequently B. procyonis, have been introduced to Europe and Japan, where naïve vertebrates may be exposed to the parasite. Finally, domestic animals and exotic pets can carry patent infections with B. procyonis, thus increasing environmental contamination beyond raccoon latrines, and expanding the area of risk to potential paratenic hosts. This parasite can potentially contribute to extinctions of vulnerable species, as exemplified by the case of the Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister), a species that has experienced local declines and extinctions that are linked to B. procyonis. Conservation strategies for vulnerable species should consider the transmission ecology of parasitic pathogens, like B. procyonis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Kristen Page
- 501 College Ave., Biology Department, Wheaton College, Wheaton, IL 60187, USA
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Smyser TJ, Johnson SA, Page LK, Hudson CM, Rhodes OE. Use of experimental translocations of Allegheny woodrat to decipher causal agents of decline. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2013; 27:752-762. [PMID: 23647164 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Translocations are an important tool for wildlife conservation, although progress in the field of reintroduction biology has been hindered by the ad hoc and opportunistic nature of many translocations. We used an experimental translocation to elucidate the role of raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) and inbreeding depression in the decline of the Allegheny woodrat (Neotoma magister), an endangered species. We translocated woodrats from genetically diverse populations in the core of the species range to 4 previously occupied sites (reintroductions) and 2 sites supporting genetically depauperate populations (reinforcements) in Indiana (U.S.A.). In 2 reintroduction sites and 1 reinforcement site, we distributed anthelmintic baits to passively deworm raccoons and reduce the risk of woodrat exposure to roundworms. The remaining sites served as controls. We used raccoon latrine surveys and fecal flotation to monitor temporal variability in roundworm prevalence and effect of treatment. We used live trapping and microsatellite genotyping to monitor the demographic and genetic response of translocated populations over the following 54 months. At the conclusion of the study, 4 of 6 translocations were successfully maintaining abundance through local recruitment. The distribution of anthelmintic baits reduced levels of roundworm contamination, but levels of contamination were also low in 2 of 3 control sites. Reintroductions failed at control sites, one of which was due to high roundworm exposure. The other failed control reintroduction was likely attributable to demographic stochasticity and limited reproductive potential following initial mortality within the first 4 months. In both control and treatment reinforcements, increases in both allelic richness and heterozygosity were accompanied by increases in abundance, which is suggestive of genetic rescue. Our results demonstrate that mitigation of roundworm exposure through the distribution of anthelmintic baits can facilitate woodrat recovery and that diversity within genetically depauperate populations can be restored through the introduction of a limited number of individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Smyser
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, 715 West State Street, West Lafayette, IN, USA.
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Abstract
The nematode genus Baylisascaris (order Ascaridida, superfamily Ascaridoidea) contains nine relatively host-specific, parasite species of carnivores, omnivores, herbivores, carnivorous marsupials or rodents. They have a facultative heteroxenous life cycle, at least under experimental conditions. Eggs passed in faeces embryonate in the environment and the second-stage larva infective for both definitive and intermediate hosts develops. In intermediate hosts larvae migrate extensively through tissues, where they grow and moult to the third-stage, causing extensive damage. All Baylisascaris spp. are considered a potential cause of visceral, ocular and/or neural larval migrans in mammals including humans and in birds. This paper summarises our current knowledge on the prevalence, biology, pathogenicity and zoonotic significance of three Baylisascaris species: B. transfuga, B. schroederi and B. procyonis which have as definitive hosts bears, giant pandas and raccoons (occasionally dogs), respectively.
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Baylisascaris procyonis in raccoons (Procyon lotor) from North Carolina and current status of the parasite in the USA. Parasitol Res 2012. [PMID: 23180125 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-012-3186-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Baylisascaris procyonis is an intestinal nematode of raccoons (Procyon lotor) that can cause fatal larva migrans in numerous species of birds and mammals, including humans. Historically, this parasite has been rare in the southeastern USA but recently has been reported in eastern Tennessee and isolated parts of Georgia and Florida. The objective of the current study was to investigate the distribution and prevalence of B. procyonis in raccoons from North Carolina. In western North Carolina, in counties bordering Tennessee, B. procyonis was detected in nine of 74 (12 %) raccoons sampled in 2010-2011. In general, worm burdens (average 20 worms) were low, but one raccoon had 122 adult worms. No difference was noted in prevalence by year or age, but significantly more males were infected compared with females. Sequences of the internal transcribed spacer 2 region from three samples were identical to B. procyonis. In central North Carolina (Guilford County), all 34 raccoons and 49 fecal samples tested were negative. Collation of data from previous studies conducted in the Southeast indicates that B. procyonis has been reported from numerous counties, but surveillance has been patchy and many negative results are >30 years old. These results indicate that B. procyonis is established in North Carolina and given the zoonotic and wildlife health implications of this parasite, additional surveillance in North Carolina and other southeastern states is warranted.
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Abstract
Free-roaming cat populations have been identified as a significant public health threat and are a source for several zoonotic diseases including rabies, toxoplasmosis, cutaneous larval migrans because of various nematode parasites, plague, tularemia and murine typhus. Several of these diseases are reported to cause mortality in humans and can cause other important health issues including abortion, blindness, pruritic skin rashes and other various symptoms. A recent case of rabies in a young girl from California that likely was transmitted by a free-roaming cat underscores that free-roaming cats can be a source of zoonotic diseases. Increased attention has been placed on trap-neuter-release (TNR) programmes as a viable tool to manage cat populations. However, some studies have shown that TNR leads to increased immigration of unneutered cats into neutered populations as well as increased kitten survival in neutered groups. These compensatory mechanisms in neutered groups leading to increased kitten survival and immigration would confound rabies vaccination campaigns and produce naïve populations of cats that can serve as source of zoonotic disease agents owing to lack of immunity. This manuscript is a review of the various diseases of free-roaming cats and the public health implications associated with the cat populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- R W Gerhold
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of Forestry, Wildlife, and Fisheries, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-4563, USA.
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Baylisascaris procyonis in raccoons (Procyon lotor) from eastern Colorado, an area of undefined prevalence. Vet Parasitol 2012; 185:330-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2011] [Revised: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Shafir SC, Sorvillo FJ, Sorvillo T, Eberhard ML. Viability of Baylisascaris procyonis Eggs. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 17:1293-5. [PMID: 21762591 PMCID: PMC3381372 DOI: 10.3201/eid1707.101774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection with Baylisascaris procyonis roundworms is rare but often fatal and typically affects children. We attempted to determine parameters of viability and methods of inactivating the eggs of these roundworms. Loss of viability resulted when eggs were heated to 62°C or desiccated for 7 months but not when frozen at –15°C for 6 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira C Shafir
- University of California Los Angeles School of Public Health, Los Angeles, California, USA.
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Xie Y, Zhang Z, Niu L, Wang Q, Wang C, Lan J, Deng J, Fu Y, Nie H, Yan N, Yang D, Hao G, Gu X, Wang S, Peng X, Yang G. The mitochondrial genome of Baylisascaris procyonis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e27066. [PMID: 22046447 PMCID: PMC3203944 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Accepted: 10/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Baylisascaris procyonis (Nematoda: Ascaridida), an intestinal nematode of raccoons, is emerging as an important helminthic zoonosis due to serious or fatal larval migrans in animals and humans. Despite its significant veterinary and public health impact, the epidemiology, molecular ecology and population genetics of this parasite remain largely unexplored. Mitochondrial (mt) genomes can provide a foundation for investigations in these areas and assist in the diagnosis and control of B. procyonis. In this study, the first complete mt genome sequence of B. procyonis was determined using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based primer-walking strategy. Methodology/Principal Findings The circular mt genome (14781 bp) of B. procyonis contained 12 protein-coding, 22 transfer RNA and 2 ribosomal RNA genes congruent with other chromadorean nematodes. Interestingly, the B. procyonis mtDNA featured an extremely long AT-rich region (1375 bp) and a high number of intergenic spacers (17), making it unique compared with other secernentean nematodes characterized to date. Additionally, the entire genome displayed notable levels of AT skew and GC skew. Based on pairwise comparisons and sliding window analysis of mt genes among the available 11 Ascaridida mtDNAs, new primer pairs were designed to amplify specific short fragments of the genes cytb (548 bp fragment) and rrnL (200 bp fragment) in the B. procyonis mtDNA, and tested as possible alternatives to existing mt molecular beacons for Ascaridida. Finally, phylogenetic analysis of mtDNAs provided novel estimates of the interrelationships of Baylisasaris and Ascaridida. Conclusions/Significance The complete mt genome sequence of B. procyonis sequenced here should contribute to molecular diagnostic methods, epidemiological investigations and ecological studies of B. procyonis and other related ascaridoids. The information will be important in refining the phylogenetic relationships within the order Ascaridida and enriching the resource of markers for systematic, population genetic and evolutionary biological studies of parasitic nematodes of socio-economic importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Xie
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, China
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Otranto D, Eberhard ML. Zoonotic helminths affecting the human eye. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4:41. [PMID: 21429191 PMCID: PMC3071329 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2011] [Accepted: 03/23/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowaday, zoonoses are an important cause of human parasitic diseases worldwide and a major threat to the socio-economic development, mainly in developing countries. Importantly, zoonotic helminths that affect human eyes (HIE) may cause blindness with severe socio-economic consequences to human communities. These infections include nematodes, cestodes and trematodes, which may be transmitted by vectors (dirofilariasis, onchocerciasis, thelaziasis), food consumption (sparganosis, trichinellosis) and those acquired indirectly from the environment (ascariasis, echinococcosis, fascioliasis). Adult and/or larval stages of HIE may localize into human ocular tissues externally (i.e., lachrymal glands, eyelids, conjunctival sacs) or into the ocular globe (i.e., intravitreous retina, anterior and or posterior chamber) causing symptoms due to the parasitic localization in the eyes or to the immune reaction they elicit in the host. Unfortunately, data on HIE are scant and mostly limited to case reports from different countries. The biology and epidemiology of the most frequently reported HIE are discussed as well as clinical description of the diseases, diagnostic considerations and video clips on their presentation and surgical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Otranto
- Dipartimento di Sanità Pubblica e Zootecnia, Università degli Studi di Bari, Valenzano, BA, Italy
| | - Mark L Eberhard
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341-3724, USA
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