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Griesman T, McMillen CM, Negatu SG, Hulahan JJ, Whig K, Dohnalová L, Dittmar M, Thaiss CA, Jurado KA, Schultz DC, Hartman AL, Cherry S. The lipopeptide Pam3CSK4 inhibits Rift Valley fever virus infection and protects from encephalitis. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012343. [PMID: 38935789 PMCID: PMC11236204 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is an encephalitic bunyavirus that can infect neurons in the brain. There are no approved therapeutics that can protect from RVFV encephalitis. Innate immunity, the first line of defense against infection, canonically antagonizes viruses through interferon signaling. We found that interferons did not efficiently protect primary cortical neurons from RVFV, unlike other cell types. To identify alternative neuronal antiviral pathways, we screened innate immune ligands and discovered that the TLR2 ligand Pam3CSK4 inhibited RVFV infection, and other bunyaviruses. Mechanistically, we found that Pam3CSK4 blocks viral fusion, independent of TLR2. In a mouse model of RVFV encephalitis, Pam3CSK4 treatment protected animals from infection and mortality. Overall, Pam3CSK4 is a bunyavirus fusion inhibitor active in primary neurons and the brain, representing a new approach toward the development of treatments for encephalitic bunyavirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor Griesman
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Cynthia M. McMillen
- Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Seble Getenet Negatu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, Unites States of America
| | - Jesse J. Hulahan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Kanupriya Whig
- High throughput screening core, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Lenka Dohnalová
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, Unites States of America
| | - Mark Dittmar
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Christoph A. Thaiss
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, Unites States of America
| | - Kellie A. Jurado
- Department of Microbiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, Unites States of America
| | - David C. Schultz
- High throughput screening core, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Amy L. Hartman
- Center for Vaccine Research, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Sara Cherry
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Pennsylvania, United States of America
- High throughput screening core, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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Troncos G, Popuche D, Adhikari BN, Long KA, Ríos J, Valerio M, Guevara C, Cer RZ, Bishop-Lilly KA, Ampuero JS, Silva M, Cruz CD. Novel Echarate Virus Variant Isolated from Patient with Febrile Illness, Chanchamayo, Peru. Emerg Infect Dis 2023; 29:1908-1912. [PMID: 37610254 PMCID: PMC10461681 DOI: 10.3201/eid2909.230374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
A new phlebovirus variant was isolated from an acute febrile patient in Chanchamayo, Peru. Genome characterization and p-distance analyses based on complete open reading frames revealed that the virus is probably a natural reassortant of the Echarate virus (large and small segments) with a yet-unidentified phlebovirus (M segment).
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Navarro Valencia VA, Díaz Y, Pascale JM, Boni MF, Sanchez-Galan JE. Using compartmental models and Particle Swarm Optimization to assess Dengue basic reproduction number R 0 for the Republic of Panama in the 1999-2022 period. Heliyon 2023; 9:e15424. [PMID: 37128312 PMCID: PMC10147988 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, the ability to make data-driven decisions in public health is of utmost importance. To achieve this, it is necessary for modelers to comprehend the impact of models on the future state of healthcare systems. Compartmental models are a valuable tool for making informed epidemiological decisions, and the proper parameterization of these models is crucial for analyzing epidemiological events. This work evaluated the use of compartmental models in conjunction with Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to determine optimal solutions and understand the dynamics of Dengue epidemics. The focus was on calculating and evaluating the rate of case reproduction,R 0 , for the Republic of Panama. Three compartmental models were compared: Susceptible-Infected-Recovered (SIR), Susceptible-Exposed-Infected-Recovered (SEIR), and Susceptible-Infected-Recovered Human-Susceptible-Infected Vector (SIR Human-SI Vector, SIR-SI). The models were informed by demographic data and Dengue incidence in the Republic of Panama between 1999 and 2022, and the susceptible population was analyzed. The SIR, SEIR, and SIR-SI models successfully providedR 0 estimates ranging from 1.09 to 1.74. This study provides, to the best of our understanding, the first calculation ofR 0 for Dengue outbreaks in the Republic of Panama.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yamilka Díaz
- Department of Research in Virology and Biotechnology, Gorgas Memorial Institute of Health Studies, Panama, Panama
| | - Jose Miguel Pascale
- Unit of Diagnosis, Clinical Research and Tropical Medicine, Gorgas Memorial Institute of Health Studies, Panama, Panama
- Sistema Nacional de Investigación, SENACYT, Ciudad del Saber, Panama, Panama
| | - Maciej F. Boni
- Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
| | - Javier E. Sanchez-Galan
- Grupo de Investigación en Biotecnología, Bioinformática y Biología de Sistemas (GIBBS), Facultad de Ingeniería de Sistemas Computacionales, Universidad Tecnológica de Panamá, Campus Victor Levi Sasso, Panama, Panama
- Sistema Nacional de Investigación, SENACYT, Ciudad del Saber, Panama, Panama
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Tirera S, de Thoisy B, Donato D, Bouchier C, Lacoste V, Franc A, Lavergne A. The Influence of Habitat on Viral Diversity in Neotropical Rodent Hosts. Viruses 2021; 13:v13091690. [PMID: 34578272 PMCID: PMC8472065 DOI: 10.3390/v13091690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Rodents are important reservoirs of numerous viruses, some of which have significant impacts on public health. Ecosystem disturbances and decreased host species richness have been associated with the emergence of zoonotic diseases. In this study, we aimed at (a) characterizing the viral diversity in seven neotropical rodent species living in four types of habitats and (b) exploring how the extent of environmental disturbance influences this diversity. Through a metagenomic approach, we identified 77,767 viral sequences from spleen, kidney, and serum samples. These viral sequences were attributed to 27 viral families known to infect vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, and amoeba. Viral diversities were greater in pristine habitats compared with disturbed ones, and lowest in peri-urban areas. High viral richness was observed in savannah areas. Differences in these diversities were explained by rare viruses that were generally more frequent in pristine forest and savannah habitats. Moreover, changes in the ecology and behavior of rodent hosts, in a given habitat, such as modifications to the diet in disturbed vs. pristine forests, are major determinants of viral composition. Lastly, the phylogenetic relationships of four vertebrate-related viral families (Polyomaviridae, Flaviviridae, Togaviridae, and Phenuiviridae) highlighted the wide diversity of these viral families, and in some cases, a potential risk of transmission to humans. All these findings provide significant insights into the diversity of rodent viruses in Amazonia, and emphasize that habitats and the host’s dietary ecology may drive viral diversity. Linking viral richness and abundance to the ecology of their hosts and their responses to habitat disturbance could be the starting point for a better understanding of viral emergence and for future management of ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourakhata Tirera
- Laboratoire des Interactions Virus-Hôtes, Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, 97306 Cayenne, France; (S.T.); (B.d.T.); (D.D.); (V.L.)
| | - Benoit de Thoisy
- Laboratoire des Interactions Virus-Hôtes, Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, 97306 Cayenne, France; (S.T.); (B.d.T.); (D.D.); (V.L.)
| | - Damien Donato
- Laboratoire des Interactions Virus-Hôtes, Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, 97306 Cayenne, France; (S.T.); (B.d.T.); (D.D.); (V.L.)
| | | | - Vincent Lacoste
- Laboratoire des Interactions Virus-Hôtes, Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, 97306 Cayenne, France; (S.T.); (B.d.T.); (D.D.); (V.L.)
- Département de Virologie, Institut Pasteur, 75015 Paris, France
- Arbovirus & Emerging Viral Diseases Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Laos, Vientiane 3560, Laos
| | - Alain Franc
- UMR BIOGECO, INRAE, University Bordeaux, 33612 Cestas, France;
- Pleiade, EPC INRIA-INRAE-CNRS, University Bordeaux, 33405 Talence, France
| | - Anne Lavergne
- Laboratoire des Interactions Virus-Hôtes, Institut Pasteur de la Guyane, BP 6010, 97306 Cayenne, France; (S.T.); (B.d.T.); (D.D.); (V.L.)
- Correspondence:
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Kolb AW, Brandt CR. Genomic nucleotide-based distance analysis for delimiting old world monkey derived herpes simplex virus species. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:436. [PMID: 32590937 PMCID: PMC7318535 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-06847-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex viruses form a genus within the alphaherpesvirus subfamily, with three identified viral species isolated from Old World monkeys (OWM); Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1 (McHV-1; herpes B), Cercopithecine alphaherpesvirus 2 (SA8), and Papiine alphaherpesvirus 2 (PaHV-2; herpes papio). Herpes B is endemic to macaques, while PaHV-2 and SA8 appear endemic to baboons. All three viruses are genetically and antigenically similar, with SA8 and PaHV-2 thought to be avirulent in humans, while herpes B is a biosafety level 4 pathogen. Recently, next-generation sequencing (NGS) has resulted in an increased number of published OWM herpes simplex genomes, allowing an encompassing phylogenetic analysis. RESULTS In this study, phylogenetic networks, in conjunction with a genome-based genetic distance cutoff method were used to examine 27 OWM monkey herpes simplex isolates. Genome-based genetic distances were calculated, resulting in distances between lion and pig-tailed simplex viruses themselves, and versus herpes B core strains that were higher than those between PaHV-2 and SA8 (approximately 14 and 10% respectively). The species distance cutoff was determined to be 8.94%, with the method recovering separate species status for PaHV-2 and SA8 and showed that lion and pig-tailed simplex viruses (vs core herpes B strains) were well over the distance species cutoff. CONCLUSIONS We propose designating lion and pig-tailed simplex viruses as separate, individual viral species, and that this may be the first identification of viral cryptic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron W Kolb
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 550 Bardeen Laboratories, 1300 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA.
| | - Curtis R Brandt
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 550 Bardeen Laboratories, 1300 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA.,McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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Hughes HR, Russell BJ, Lambert AJ. Genetic Characterization of Frijoles and Chilibre Species Complex Viruses (Genus Phlebovirus; Family Phenuiviridae) and Three Unclassified New World Phleboviruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 102:359-365. [PMID: 31802735 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Phlebovirus is a diverse group of globally occurring viruses, including tick-, mosquito-, and sand fly-borne pathogens. Phleboviruses have historically been classified by serological methods. However, molecular methods alone have been used to identify emergent novel and related strains in recent years. This makes reconciling the classification of historically and newly characterized viruses challenging. To address this in part, we describe the characterization of the genomes of the Frijoles and Chilibre species complex phleboviruses, and three unclassified phleboviruses isolated in the Americas: Caimito, Itaporanga, and Rio Grande viruses that had previously only been described at the serological level. With the exception of Itaporanga virus, the phleboviruses sequenced in this study are phylogenetically related to the current species Frijoles phlebovirus, Bujaru phlebovirus, or the Chagres antigenic complex. Unexpectedly, molecular and phylogenetic analysis suggests Chilibre and Caimito viruses are taxonomically related to the family Peribunyaviridae. These viruses have a genomic architecture similar to peribunyaviruses and form monophyletic groups within the genus Pacuvirus. Our data highlight the importance of reconciling serological and molecular taxonomic classification. In addition, we suggest the taxonomy of Chilibre and Caimito viruses should be revised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly R Hughes
- Arboviral Disease Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Brandy J Russell
- Arboviral Disease Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Amy J Lambert
- Arboviral Disease Branch, Division of Vector Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado
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de Oliveira Filho EF, Moreira-Soto A, Fischer C, Rasche A, Sander AL, Avey-Arroyo J, Arroyo-Murillo F, Corrales-Aguilar E, Drexler JF. Sloths host Anhanga virus-related phleboviruses across large distances in time and space. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019; 67:11-17. [PMID: 31420970 PMCID: PMC7168552 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Sloths are genetically and physiologically divergent mammals. Phleboviruses are major arthropod‐borne viruses (arboviruses) causing disease in humans and other animals globally. Sloths host arboviruses, but virus detections are scarce. A phlebovirus termed Anhanga virus (ANHV) was isolated from a Brazilian Linnaeus's two‐toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus) in 1962. Here, we investigated the presence of phleboviruses in sera sampled in 2014 from 74 Hoffmann's two‐toed (Choloepus hoffmanni, n = 65) and three‐toed (Bradypus variegatus, n = 9) sloths in Costa Rica by broadly reactive RT‐PCR. A clinically healthy adult Hoffmann's two‐toed sloth was infected with a phlebovirus. Viral load in this animal was high at 8.5 × 107 RNA copies/ml. The full coding sequence of the virus was determined by deep sequencing. Phylogenetic analyses and sequence distance comparisons revealed that the new sloth virus, likely representing a new phlebovirus species, provisionally named Penshurt virus (PEHV), was most closely related to ANHV, with amino acid identities of 93.1%, 84.6%, 94.7% and 89.0% in the translated L, M, N and NSs genes, respectively. Significantly more non‐synonymous mutations relative to ANHV occurred in the M gene encoding the viral glycoproteins and in the NSs gene encoding a putative interferon antagonist compared to L and N genes. This was compatible with viral adaptation to different sloth species and with micro‐evolutionary processes associated with immune evasion during the genealogy of sloth‐associated phleboviruses. However, gene‐wide mean dN/dS ratios were low at 0.02–0.15 and no sites showed significant evidence for positive selection, pointing to comparable selection pressures within sloth‐associated viruses and genetically related phleboviruses infecting hosts other than sloths. The detection of a new phlebovirus closely‐related to ANHV, in sloths from Costa Rica fifty years after and more than 3,000 km away from the isolation of ANHV confirmed the host associations of ANHV‐related phleboviruses with the two extant species of two‐toed sloths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmilson F de Oliveira Filho
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andrés Moreira-Soto
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,Faculty of Microbiology, Virology-CIET (Research Center for Tropical Diseases), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Carlo Fischer
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andrea Rasche
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna-Lena Sander
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | - Eugenia Corrales-Aguilar
- Faculty of Microbiology, Virology-CIET (Research Center for Tropical Diseases), University of Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Jan Felix Drexler
- Institute of Virology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), associated partner site Charité, Berlin, Germany.,Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology, Tropical and Vector-Borne Diseases, Sechenov University, Moscow, Russia
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8
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Molecular Epidemiology of Dengue in Panama: 25 Years of Circulation. Viruses 2019; 11:v11080764. [PMID: 31434193 PMCID: PMC6724401 DOI: 10.3390/v11080764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) is the most prevalent arbovirus in terms of human public health importance globally. In addition to DENV epidemiological surveillance, genomic surveillance may help investigators understand the epidemiological dynamics, geographic distribution, and temporal patterns of DENV circulation. Herein, we aimed to reconstruct the molecular epidemiology and phylogeny of DENV in Panama to connect the epidemiological history of DENV dispersal and circulation in Latin America. We retrospectively analyzed the epidemiological data obtained during 25 years of DENV surveillance in Panama. DENV was reintroduced in Panama in 1993 after a 35 year absence of autochthonous transmission. The increase in the number of total dengue cases has been accompanied by an increase in severe and fatal cases, with the highest case fatality rate recorded in 2011. All four serotypes were detected in Panama, which is characterized by serotype replacement and/or co-circulation of multiple serotypes. Phylogenetic analysis of datasets collected from envelope (E) gene sequences obtained from viruses isolated from human sera demonstrated that circulating viruses were highly diverse and clustered in distinct clades, with co-circulation of clades from the same genotype. Our analyses also suggest that Panamanian strains were related to viruses from different regions of the Americas, suggesting a continuous exchange of viruses within the Americas.
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Marklewitz M, Dutari LC, Paraskevopoulou S, Page RA, Loaiza JR, Junglen S. Diverse novel phleboviruses in sandflies from the Panama Canal area, Central Panama. J Gen Virol 2019; 100:938-949. [PMID: 31050631 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Phlebovirus (order Bunyavirales, family Phenuiviridae) comprises 57 viruses that are grouped into nine species-complexes. Sandfly-transmitted phleboviruses are found in Europe, Africa and the Americas and are responsible for febrile illness and infections of the nervous system in humans. The aim of this study was to assess the genetic diversity of sandfly-transmitted phleboviruses in connected and isolated forest habitats throughout the Panama Canal area in Central Panama. In total, we collected 13 807 sandflies comprising eight phlebotomine species. We detected several strains pertaining to five previously unknown viruses showing maximum pairwise identities of 45-78 % to the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase genes of phleboviruses. Entire coding regions were directly sequenced from infected sandflies as virus isolation in cell culture was not successful. The viruses were tentatively named La Gloria virus (LAGV), Mona Grita virus (MOGV), Peña Blanca virus (PEBV), Tico virus (TICV) and Tres Almendras virus (TRAV). Inferred phylogenies and p-distance-based analyses revealed that PEBV groups with the Bujaru phlebovirus species-complex, TRAV with the Candiru phlebovirus species-complex and MOGV belongs to the proposed Icoarci phlebovirus species-complex, whereas LAGV and TICV seem to be distant members of the Bujaru phlebovirus species-complex. No specific vector or habitat association was found for any of the five viruses. Relative abundance of sandflies was similar over habitat types. Our study shows that blood-feeding insects originating from remote and biodiverse habitats harbour multiple previously unknown phleboviruses. These viruses should be included in future surveillance studies to assess their geographic distribution and to elucidate if these viruses cause symptoms of disease in animals or humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Marklewitz
- 3 Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Republic of Panama.,1 Institute of Virology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt-University Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,2 German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Berlin, Germany
| | - Larissa C Dutari
- 4 Centro de Biodiversidad y Descubrimiento de Drogas, Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología (INDICASAT-AIP), Panama City, Republic of Panama.,5 Biotechnology Department, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, India.,6 Programa Centroamericano de Maestría en Entomología, Vicerrectoría de Investigación y, Postgrado, Universidad de Panamá, Panama City, Republic of Panama
| | - Sofia Paraskevopoulou
- 1 Institute of Virology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt-University Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rachel A Page
- 3 Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Republic of Panama
| | - Jose R Loaiza
- 3 Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Republic of Panama.,6 Programa Centroamericano de Maestría en Entomología, Vicerrectoría de Investigación y, Postgrado, Universidad de Panamá, Panama City, Republic of Panama.,4 Centro de Biodiversidad y Descubrimiento de Drogas, Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología (INDICASAT-AIP), Panama City, Republic of Panama
| | - Sandra Junglen
- 1 Institute of Virology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Free University Berlin, Humboldt-University Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,2 German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Berlin, Germany
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