1
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Siegers JY, Wille M, Yann S, Tok S, Sin S, Chea S, Porco A, Sours S, Chim V, Chea S, Chhel K, Tum S, Sorn S, Hak M, Thielen P, Dhanasekaran V, Karlsson EA. Detection and phylogenetic analysis of contemporary H14N2 Avian influenza A virus in domestic ducks in Southeast Asia (Cambodia). Emerg Microbes Infect 2024; 13:2297552. [PMID: 38112157 PMCID: PMC11025406 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2023.2297552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
Avian influenza virus (AIV) in Asia is a complex system with numerous subtypes and a highly porous wild birds-poultry interface. Certain AIV subtypes, such as H14, are underrepresented in current surveillance efforts, leaving gaps in our understanding of their ecology and evolution. The detection of rare subtype H14 in domestic ducks in Southeast Asia comprises a geographic region and domestic bird population previously unassociated with this subtype. These H14 viruses have a complex evolutionary history involving gene reassortment events. They share sequence similarity to AIVs endemic in Cambodian ducks, and Eurasian low pathogenicity and high pathogenicity H5Nx AIVs. The detection of these H14 viruses in Southeast Asian domestic poultry further advances our knowledge of the ecology and evolution of this subtype and reinforces the need for continued, longitudinal, active surveillance in domestic and wild birds. Additionally, in vivo and in vitro risk assessment should encompass rare AIV subtypes, as they have the potential to establish in poultry systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jurre Y. Siegers
- Virology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Michelle Wille
- Centre for Pathogen Genomics, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sokhoun Yann
- Virology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Songha Tok
- Virology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sarath Sin
- Virology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sokha Chea
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Alice Porco
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sreyem Sours
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Vutha Chim
- National Animal Health and Production Research Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Samban Chea
- Virology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Kimtuo Chhel
- Virology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sothyra Tum
- National Animal Health and Production Research Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - San Sorn
- National Animal Health and Production Research Institute, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Makara Hak
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Country Office, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Peter Thielen
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD, USA
| | - Vijaykrishna Dhanasekaran
- School of Public Health, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
- HKU-Pasteur Research Pole, School of Public Health, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Erik A. Karlsson
- Virology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
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2
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Ma L, Zheng H, Ke X, Gui R, Yao Z, Xiong J, Chen Q. Mutual antagonism of mouse-adaptation mutations in HA and PA proteins on H9N2 virus replication. Virol Sin 2024; 39:56-70. [PMID: 37967718 PMCID: PMC10877434 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2023.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian H9N2 viruses have wide host range among the influenza A viruses. However, knowledge of H9N2 mammalian adaptation is limited. To explore the molecular basis of the adaptation to mammals, we performed serial lung passaging of the H9N2 strain A/chicken/Hunan/8.27 YYGK3W3-OC/2018 (3W3) in mice and identified six mutations in the hemagglutinin (HA) and polymerase acidic (PA) proteins. Mutations L226Q, T511I, and A528V of HA were responsible for enhanced pathogenicity and viral replication in mice; notably, HA-L226Q was the key determinant. Mutations T97I, I545V, and S594G of PA contributed to enhanced polymerase activity in mammalian cells and increased viral replication levels in vitro and in vivo. PA-T97I increased viral polymerase activity by accelerating the viral polymerase complex assembly. Our findings revealed that the viral replication was affected by the presence of PA-97I and/or PA-545V in combination with a triple-point HA mutation. Furthermore, the double- and triple-point PA mutations demonstrated antagonistic effect on viral replication when combined with HA-226Q. Notably, any combination of PA mutations, along with double-point HA mutations, resulted in antagonistic effect on viral replication. We also observed antagonism in viral replication between PA-545V and PA-97I, as well as between HA-528V and PA-545V. Our findings demonstrated that several antagonistic mutations in HA and PA proteins affect viral replication, which may contribute to the H9N2 virus adaptation to mice and mammalian cells. These findings can potentially contribute to the monitoring of H9N2 field strains for assessing their potential risk in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Ma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Huabin Zheng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xianliang Ke
- CAS Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China
| | - Rui Gui
- CAS Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Zhongzi Yao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jiasong Xiong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Quanjiao Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Center for Biosafety Mega-Science, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430207, China; Hubei Jiangxia Laboratory, Wuhan, 430207, China.
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3
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Qu M, Zhang H, Cheng P, Wubshet AK, Yin X, Wang X, Sun Y. Histone deacetylase 6's function in viral infection, innate immunity, and disease: latest advances. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1216548. [PMID: 37638049 PMCID: PMC10450946 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1216548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In the family of histone-deacetylases, histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6) stands out. The cytoplasmic class IIb histone deacetylase (HDAC) family is essential for many cellular functions. It plays a crucial and debatable regulatory role in innate antiviral immunity. This review summarises the current state of our understanding of HDAC6's structure and function in light of the three mechanisms by which it controls DNA and RNA virus infection: cytoskeleton regulation, host innate immune response, and autophagy degradation of host or viral proteins. In addition, we summed up how HDAC6 inhibitors are used to treat a wide range of diseases, and how its upstream signaling plays a role in the antiviral mechanism. Together, the findings of this review highlight HDAC6's importance as a new therapeutic target in antiviral immunity, innate immune response, and some diseases, all of which offer promising new avenues for the development of drugs targeting the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Qu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Huijun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Pengyuan Cheng
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Ashenafi Kiros Wubshet
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Department of Basic and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Science, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia
| | - Xiangping Yin
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiangwei Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yuefeng Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
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Boukli N, Flamand C, Chea KL, Heng L, Keo S, Sour K, In S, Chhim P, Chhor B, Kruy L, Feenstra JDM, Gandhi M, Okafor O, Ulekleiv C, Auerswald H, Horm VS, Karlsson EA. One assay to test them all: Multiplex assays for expansion of respiratory virus surveillance. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1161268. [PMID: 37168265 PMCID: PMC10165998 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1161268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular multiplex assays (MPAs) for simultaneous detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in a single RT-PCR reaction reduce time and increase efficiency to identify multiple pathogens with overlapping clinical presentation but different treatments or public health implications. Clinical performance of XpertXpress® SARS-CoV-2/Flu/RSV (Cepheid, GX), TaqPath™ COVID-19, FluA/B, RSV Combo kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, TP), and PowerChek™ SARS-CoV-2/Influenza A&B/RSV Multiplex RT-PCR kit II (KogeneBiotech, PC) was compared to individual Standards of Care (SoC). Thirteen isolates of SARS-CoV-2, human seasonal influenza, and avian influenza served to assess limit of detection (LoD). Then, positive and negative residual nasopharyngeal specimens, collected under public health surveillance and pandemic response served for evaluation. Subsequently, comparison of effectiveness was assessed. The three MPAs confidently detect all lineages of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses. MPA-LoDs vary from 1 to 2 Log10 differences from SoC depending on assay and strain. Clinical evaluation resulted in overall agreement between 97 and 100%, demonstrating a high accuracy to detect all targets. Existing differences in costs, testing burden and implementation constraints influence the choice in primary or community settings. TP, PC and GX, reliably detect SARS-CoV-2, influenza and RSV simultaneously, with reduced time-to-results and simplified workflows. MPAs have the potential to enhance diagnostics, surveillance system, and epidemic response to drive policy on prevention and control of viral respiratory infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narjis Boukli
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Claude Flamand
- Epidemiology and Public Health Unit, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
- Mathematical Modelling of Infectious Diseases Unit, Institut Pasteur, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Kim Lay Chea
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Leangyi Heng
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Seangmai Keo
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Kimhoung Sour
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sophea In
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Panha Chhim
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Bunthea Chhor
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Lomor Kruy
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | | | - Manoj Gandhi
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, South San Francisco CA, United States
| | - Obiageli Okafor
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, South San Francisco CA, United States
| | | | - Heidi Auerswald
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Viseth Srey Horm
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Erik A. Karlsson
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional Reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institut Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
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5
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Continued evolution of the Eurasian avian-like H1N1 swine influenza viruses in China. SCIENCE CHINA. LIFE SCIENCES 2023; 66:269-282. [PMID: 36219302 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-022-2208-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Animal influenza viruses continue to pose a threat to human public health. The Eurasian avian-like H1N1 (EA H1N1) viruses are widespread in pigs throughout Europe and China and have caused human infections in several countries, indicating their pandemic potential. To carefully monitor the evolution of the EA H1N1 viruses in nature, we collected nasal swabs from 103,110 pigs in 22 provinces in China between October 2013 and December 2019, and isolated 855 EA H1N1 viruses. Genomic analysis of 319 representative viruses revealed that these EA H1N1 viruses formed eight different genotypes through reassortment with viruses of other lineages circulating in humans and pigs, and two of these genotypes (G4 and G5) were widely distributed in pigs. Animal studies indicated that some strains have become highly pathogenic in mice and highly transmissible in ferrets via respiratory droplets. Moreover, two-thirds of the EA H1N1 viruses reacted poorly with ferret serum antibodies induced by the currently used H1N1 human influenza vaccine, suggesting that existing immunity may not prevent the transmission of the EA H1N1 viruses in humans. Our study reveals the evolution and pandemic potential of EA H1N1 viruses and provides important insights for future pandemic preparedness.
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6
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BOUKLI N, FLAMAND C, CHEA KL, HENG L, KEO S, SOUR K, IN S, CHHIM P, CHHOR B, KRUY L, FEENSTRA JDM, GANDHI M, OKAFOR O, ULEKLIEV C, AUERSWALD H, HORM VS, KARLSSON EA. ONE ASSAY TO TEST THEM ALL: COMPARING MULTIPLEX ASSAYS FOR EXPANSION OF RESPIRATORY VIRUS SURVEILLANCE. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2023:2023.01.19.23284806. [PMID: 36711477 PMCID: PMC9882628 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.19.23284806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Background Molecular multiplex assays (MPAs) for simultaneous detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in a single RT-PCR reaction reduce time and increase efficiency to identify multiple pathogens with overlapping clinical presentation but different treatments or public health implications. Methods Clinical performance of XpertXpress ® SARS-CoV-2/Flu/RSV (Cepheid, GX), TaqPath™ COVID-19, FluA/B, RSV Combo kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, TP), and PowerChek™ SARS-CoV-2/Influenza A&B/RSV Multiplex RT-PCR kit II (KogeneBiotech, PC) was compared to individual Standards of Care (SoC). Thirteen isolates of SARS-CoV-2, human seasonal influenza, and avian influenza served to assess limit of detection (LoD). Then, positive and negative residual nasopharyngeal specimens, collected under public health surveillance and pandemic response served for evaluation. Subsequently, comparison of effectiveness was assessed. Results The three MPAs confidently detect all lineages of SARS-CoV-2 and influenza viruses. MPA-LoDs vary from 1-2 Log10 differences from SoC depending on assay and strain. Clinical evaluation resulted in overall agreement between 97% and 100%, demonstrating a high accuracy to detect all targets. Existing differences in costs, testing burden and implementation constraints influence the choice in primary or community settings. Conclusion TP, PC and GX, reliably detect SARS-CoV-2, influenza and RSV simultaneously, with reduced time-to-results and simplified workflows. MPAs have the potential to enhancediagnostics, surveillance system, and epidemic response to drive policy on prevention and control of viral respiratory infections. IMPORTANCE Viral respiratory infections represent a major burden globally, weighed down by the COVID-19 pandemic, and threatened by spillover of novel zoonotic influenza viruses. Since respiratory infections share clinical presentations, identification of the causing agent for patient care and public health measures requires laboratory testing for several pathogens, including potential zoonotic spillovers. Simultaneous detection of SARS-CoV-2, influenza, and RSV in a single RT-PCR accelerates time from sampling to diagnosis, preserve consumables, and streamline human resources to respond to other endemic or emerging pathogens. Multiplex assays have the potential to sustain and even expand surveillance systems, can utilize capacity/capability developed during the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide, thereby strengthening epidemic/pandemic preparedness, prevention, and response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narjis BOUKLI
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Claude FLAMAND
- Epidemiology Unit, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Kim Lay CHEA
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Leangyi HENG
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Seangmai KEO
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Kimhoung SOUR
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sophea IN
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Panha CHHIM
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Bunthea CHHOR
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Lomor KRUY
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | | | - Manoj GANDHI
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, South San Francisco CA, United States
| | - Obiageli OKAFOR
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, South San Francisco CA, United States
| | | | - Heidi AUERSWALD
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Viseth Srey HORM
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Erik A KARLSSON
- Virology Unit, National Influenza Center, WHO H5 Regional reference Laboratory, World Health Organization COVID-19 Global Referral Laboratory, Institute Pasteur du Cambodge, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
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7
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Genetic, Antigenic, and Pathobiological Characterization of H9 and H6 Low Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Viruses Isolated in Vietnam from 2014 to 2018. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11020244. [PMID: 36838209 PMCID: PMC9962344 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11020244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The H9 and H6 subtypes of low pathogenicity avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) cause substantial economic losses in poultry worldwide, including Vietnam. Herein, we characterized Vietnamese H9 and H6 LPAIVs to facilitate the control of avian influenza. The space-time representative viruses of each subtype were selected based on active surveillance from 2014 to 2018 in Vietnam. Phylogenetic analysis using hemagglutinin genes revealed that 54 H9 and 48 H6 Vietnamese LPAIVs were classified into the sublineages Y280/BJ94 and Group II, respectively. Gene constellation analysis indicated that 6 and 19 genotypes of the H9 and H6 subtypes, respectively, belonged to the representative viruses. The Vietnamese viruses are genetically related to the previous isolates and those in neighboring countries, indicating their circulation in poultry after being introduced into Vietnam. The antigenicity of these subtypes was different from that of viruses isolated from wild birds. Antigenicity was more conserved in the H9 viruses than in the H6 viruses. Furthermore, a representative H9 LPAIV exhibited systemic replication in chickens, which was enhanced by coinfection with avian pathogenic Escherichia coli O2. Although H9 and H6 were classified as LPAIVs, their characterization indicated that their silent spread might significantly affect the poultry industry.
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8
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Liu T, Xie S, Yang Z, Zha A, Shi Y, Xu L, Chen J, Qi W, Liao M, Jia W. That H9N2 avian influenza viruses circulating in different regions gather in the same live-poultry market poses a potential threat to public health. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1128286. [PMID: 36876085 PMCID: PMC9979309 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1128286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
H9N2 avian influenza viruses are endemic and persistent in China, but those that are prevalent in different provinces are also causes of wide epidemics, related to the spread of wild birds and the cross-regional trade in live poultry. For the past 4 years, beginning in 2018, we have sampled a live-poultry market in Foshan, Guangdong, in this ongoing study. In addition to the prevalence of H9N2 avian influenza viruses in China during this period, we identified isolates from the same market belonging to clade A and clade B, which diverged in 2012-2013, and clade C, which diverged in 2014-2016, respectively. An analysis of population dynamics revealed that, after a critical divergence period from 2014 to 2016, the genetic diversity of H9N2 viruses peaked in 2017. Our spatiotemporal dynamics analysis found that clade A, B, and C, which maintain high rates of evolution, have different prevalence ranges and transmission paths. Clades A and B were mainly prevalent in East China in the early stage, and then spread to Southern China, becoming epidemic with clade C. Strains from different regions converge at the same live-poultry market to communicate, which may be one reasons the H9N2 viruses are difficult to eradicate and increasingly dominant throughout China. Selection pressure and molecular analysis have demonstrated that single amino acid polymorphisms at key receptor binding sites 156, 160, and 190 under positive selection pressure, suggesting that H9N2 viruses are undergoing mutations to adapt to new hosts. Live-poultry markets are important because people who visit them have frequent contact with poultry, H9N2 viruses from different regions converge at these markets and spread through contact between live birds and humans, generating increased risks of human exposure to these viruses and threatening public health safety. Thus, it is important to reducing the cross-regional trade of live poultry and strengthening the monitoring of avian influenza viruses in live-poultry markets to reduce the spread of avian influenza viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengfei Liu
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shumin Xie
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhiyi Yang
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Aimin Zha
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuting Shi
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lingyu Xu
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junhong Chen
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenbao Qi
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ming Liao
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weixin Jia
- National Avian Influenza Para-Reference Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoonoses Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
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9
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An epidemiological overview of human infections with HxNy avian influenza in
the Western Pacific Region, 2003-2022. Western Pac Surveill Response J 2022; 13:1-6. [PMID: 36817496 PMCID: PMC9912292 DOI: 10.5365/wpsar.2022.13.4.987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian influenza subtype A(HxNy) viruses are zoonotic and may occasionally infect humans through direct or indirect contact, resulting in mild to severe illness and death. Member States in the Western Pacific Region (WPR) communicate and notify the World Health Organization of any human cases of A(HxNy) through the International Health Regulations (IHR 2005) mechanism. This report includes all notifications in the WPR with illness onset dates from 1 November 2003 to 31 July 2022. During this period, there were 1972 human infections with nine different A(HxNy) subtypes notified in the WPR. Since the last report, an additional 134 human avian influenza infections were notified from 1 October 2017 to 31 July 2022. In recent years there has been a change in the primary subtypes and frequency of reports of human A(HxNy) in the region, with a reduction of A(H7N9) and A(H5N1), and conversely an increase of A(H5N6) and A(H9N2). Furthermore, three new subtypes A(H7N4), A(H10N3) and A(H3N8) notified from the People's Republic of China were the first ever recorded globally. The public health risk from known A(HxNy) viruses remains low as there is no evidence of person-to-person transmission. However, the observed changes in A(HxNy) trends reinforce the need for effective and rapid identification to mitigate the threat of a pandemic from avian influenza if person-to-person transmission were to occur.
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Sahu M, Shah M, Mallela VR, Kola VR, Boorugu HK, Punjani AAR, Kumar RV, Kumar S, Manusrut M, Kumar SCR, Rathod R, Babu DM, Gonuguntla HK, Yedlapati GK, Mallu GR, Reddy YS, Reddy VV, Alwala S, Bongu VK, Kamalesh A, Kumar RNK, Jaishetwar GS, Bagapally RS, Srinivas JS, Balasubramaniam A, Rajagopalan BK, Pullikanti B, Prakasham SP, Nimmala P, Nagaraju B, Sahoo PR. COVID-19 associated multisystemic mucormycosis from India: a multicentric retrospective study on clinical profile, predisposing factors, cumulative mortality and factors affecting outcome. Infection 2022; 51:407-416. [PMID: 35922704 PMCID: PMC9362592 DOI: 10.1007/s15010-022-01891-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The clinical course of COVID-19 has been complicated by secondary infections, including bacterial and fungal infections. The rapid rise in the incidence of invasive mucormycosis in these patients is very much concerning. COVID-19-associated mucormycosis was detected in huge numbers during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in India, with several predisposing factors indicated in its pathogenesis. This study aimed to evaluate the epidemiology, predisposing factor, cumulative mortality and factors affecting outcomes among the coronavirus disease COVID-19-associated mucormycosis (CAM). METHODS A multicenter retrospective study across three tertiary health care centers in Southern part of India was conducted during April-June 2021. RESULTS Among the 217 cases of CAM, mucormycosis affecting the nasal sinuses was the commonest, affecting 95 (44%) of the patients, orbital extension seen in 84 (38%), pulmonary (n = 25, 12%), gastrointestinal (n = 6, 3%), isolated cerebral (n = 2) and disseminated mucormycosis (n = 2). Diabetes mellitus, high-dose systemic steroids were the most common underlying disease among CAM patients. The mucormycosis-associated case-fatality at 6 weeks was 14%, cerebral or GI or disseminated mucormycosis had 9 times higher risk of death compared to other locations. Extensive surgical debridement along with sequential antifungal drug treatment improved the survival in mucormycosis patients. CONCLUSION Judicious and appropriate management of the predisposing factor and factors affecting mortality associated with CAM with multi-disciplinary approach and timely surgical and medical management can be much helpful in achieving a successful outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monalisa Sahu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India.
| | - Milap Shah
- Department of Pathology, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
| | | | - Venkat Raman Kola
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | | | | | - R Vijay Kumar
- Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
| | - Sairaj Kumar
- Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
| | - Manusrut Manusrut
- Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
| | - S Ch Raghu Kumar
- Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
| | - Rajkumar Rathod
- Department of Laboratory and Transfusion Medicine, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | - Dilip M Babu
- Department of Nephrology, Yashoda Hospital Somajiguda, Hyderabad, 500028, India
| | | | | | | | - Y Sai Reddy
- Department of Pulmonology, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | - Vedire Vishnu Reddy
- Department of Anaesthesia, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | - Surendar Alwala
- Department of Radiodiagnosis, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | | | - A Kamalesh
- Department of Medicine, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
| | - R N Komal Kumar
- Department of Neurology, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | - Ganesh S Jaishetwar
- Department of Hematology and BMT, Yashoda Hospital, Somajiguda, Hyderabad, 500082, India
| | - Ravi Shankar Bagapally
- Department of Gastroenterology, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | - Jammula S Srinivas
- Department of Plastic and Cosmetic Surgery, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | | | | | | | | | - Pavani Nimmala
- Department of Microbiology, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
| | - Barla Nagaraju
- Department of Pulmonology, Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Hyderabad, 500003, India
| | - Pradipt R Sahoo
- Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery, Yashoda Hospital, Hyderabad, India
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11
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Cui H, Zhang C, Zhang C, Cai Z, Chen L, Chen Z, Zhao K, Qiao S, Wang Y, Meng L, Dong S, Liu J, Guo Z. Anti-Influenza Effect and Mechanisms of Lentinan in an ICR Mouse Model. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:892864. [PMID: 35669119 PMCID: PMC9163413 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.892864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza virus is a serious threat to global human health and public health security. There is an urgent need to develop new anti-influenza drugs. Lentinan (LNT) has attracted increasing attention in recent years. As potential protective agent, LNT has been shown to have anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties. However, there has been no further research into the anti-influenza action of lentinan in vivo, and the mechanism is still not fully understood. In this study, the anti-influenza effect and mechanism of Lentinan were studied in the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mouse model. The results showed that Lentinan had a high degree of protection in mice against infection with influenza A virus, delayed the emergence of clinical manifestations, improved the survival rate of mice, significantly prolonged the middle survival days, attenuated the weight loss, and reduced the lung coefficient of mice. It alleviated the pathological damage of mice infected with the influenza virus and improved blood indices. Lentinan treatment considerably inhibited inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6) levels in the serum and lung and improved IFN-γ cytokine levels, which reduced cytokine storms caused by influenza virus infection. The underlying mechanisms of action involved Lentinan inhibiting the inflammatory response by regulating the TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway. This study provides a foundation for the clinical application of Lentinan, and provides new insight into the development of novel immunomodulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Cui
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Animal Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Chunmao Zhang
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Zhuming Cai
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Ligong Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Zhaoliang Chen
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Kui Zhao
- College of Animal Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Sina Qiao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Yingchun Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Lijia Meng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Shishan Dong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- *Correspondence: Shishan Dong, ; Juxiang Liu, ; Zhendong Guo,
| | - Juxiang Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
- *Correspondence: Shishan Dong, ; Juxiang Liu, ; Zhendong Guo,
| | - Zhendong Guo
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Shishan Dong, ; Juxiang Liu, ; Zhendong Guo,
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12
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Nambou K, Anakpa M, Tong YS. Human genes with codon usage bias similar to that of the nonstructural protein 1 gene of influenza A viruses are conjointly involved in the infectious pathogenesis of influenza A viruses. Genetica 2022; 150:97-115. [PMID: 35396627 PMCID: PMC8992787 DOI: 10.1007/s10709-022-00155-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Molecular mechanisms of the non-structural protein 1 (NS1) in influenza A-induced pathological changes remain ambiguous. This study explored the pathogenesis of human infection by influenza A viruses (IAVs) through identifying human genes with codon usage bias (CUB) similar to NS1 gene of these viruses based on the relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU). CUB of the IAV subtypes H1N1, H3N2, H3N8, H5N1, H5N2, H5N8, H7N9 and H9N2 was analyzed and the correlation of RSCU values of NS1 sequences with those of the human genes was calculated. The CUB of NS1 was uneven and codons ending with A/U were preferred. The ENC-GC3 and neutrality plots suggested natural selection as the main determinant for CUB. The RCDI, CAI and SiD values showed that the viruses had a high degree of adaptability to human. A total of 2155 human genes showed significant RSCU-based correlation (p < 0.05 and r > 0.5) with NS1 coding sequences and was considered as human genes with CUB similar to NS1 gene of IAV subtypes. Differences and similarities in the subtype-specific human protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks and their functions were recorded among IAVs subtypes, indicating that NS1 of each IAV subtype has a specific pathogenic mechanism. Processes and pathways involved in influenza, transcription, immune response and cell cycle were enriched in human gene sets retrieved based on the CUB of NS1 gene of IAV subtypes. The present work may advance our understanding on the mechanism of NS1 in human infections of IAV subtypes and shed light on the therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komi Nambou
- Shenzhen Nambou1 Biotech Company Limited, 998 Wisdom Valley, No. 38-56 Zhenming Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen, 518106, China.
| | - Manawa Anakpa
- Centre d'Informatique et de Calcul, Université de Lomé, Boulevard Gnassingbé Eyadema, 01 B.P. 1515, Lomé, Togo
| | - Yin Selina Tong
- Shenzhen Nambou1 Biotech Company Limited, 998 Wisdom Valley, No. 38-56 Zhenming Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen, 518106, China
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13
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Su W, Sia SF, Choy KT, Ji Y, Chen D, Lau EHY, Fu G, Huang Y, Liu J, Peiris M, Pu J, Yen HL. Limited onward transmission potential of reassortment genotypes from chickens co-infected with H9N2 and H7N9 avian influenza viruses. Emerg Microbes Infect 2021; 10:2030-2041. [PMID: 34666614 PMCID: PMC8567909 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2021.1996209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The segmented genome of influenza A virus has conferred significant evolutionary advantages to this virus through genetic reassortment, a mechanism that facilitates the rapid expansion of viral genetic diversity upon influenza co-infections. Therefore, co-infection of genetically diverse avian influenza viruses in poultry may pose a significant public health risk in generating novel reassortants with increased zoonotic potential. This study investigated the reassortment patterns of a Pearl River Delta-lineage avian influenza A(H7N9) virus and four genetically divergent avian influenza A(H9N2) viruses upon co-infection in embryonated chicken eggs and chickens. To characterize “within-host” and “between-host” genetic diversity, we further monitored the viral genotypes that were subsequently transmitted to contact chickens in serial transmission experiments. We observed that co-infection with A(H7N9) and A(H9N2) viruses may lead to the emergence of novel reassortant viruses in ovo and in chickens, albeit with different reassortment patterns. Novel reassortants detected in donor chickens co-infected with different combinations of the same A(H7N9) virus and different A(H9N2) viruses showed distinct onward transmission potential to contact chickens. Sequential transmission of novel reassortant viruses was only observed in one out of four co-infection combinations. Our results demonstrated different patterns by which influenza viruses may acquire genetic diversity through co-infection in ovo, in vivo, and under sequential transmission conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Su
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Sin Fun Sia
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Ka-Tim Choy
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Ji
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongdong Chen
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Eric Ho Yin Lau
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Guanghua Fu
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Huang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinhua Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Malik Peiris
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Juan Pu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui-Ling Yen
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
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