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Aron L, Qiu C, Ngian ZK, Liang M, Drake D, Choi J, Fernandez MA, Roche P, Bunting EL, Lacey EK, Hamplova SE, Yuan M, Wolfe MS, Bennett DA, Lee EA, Yankner BA. A neurodegeneration checkpoint mediated by REST protects against the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7030. [PMID: 37919281 PMCID: PMC10622455 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42704-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Many aging individuals accumulate the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) without evidence of cognitive decline. Here we describe an integrated neurodegeneration checkpoint response to early pathological changes that restricts further disease progression and preserves cognitive function. Checkpoint activation is mediated by the REST transcriptional repressor, which is induced in cognitively-intact aging humans and AD mouse models at the onset of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) deposition and tau accumulation. REST induction is mediated by the unfolded protein response together with β-catenin signaling. A consequence of this response is the targeting of REST to genes involved in key pathogenic pathways, resulting in downregulation of gamma secretase, tau kinases, and pro-apoptotic proteins. Deletion of REST in the 3xTg and J20 AD mouse models accelerates Aβ deposition and the accumulation of misfolded and phosphorylated tau, leading to neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Conversely, viral-mediated overexpression of REST in the hippocampus suppresses Aβ and tau pathology. Thus, REST mediates a neurodegeneration checkpoint response with multiple molecular targets that may protect against the onset of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liviu Aron
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Chenxi Qiu
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Zhen Kai Ngian
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Marianna Liang
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Derek Drake
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Jaejoon Choi
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Marty A Fernandez
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Perle Roche
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Emma L Bunting
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Ella K Lacey
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Sara E Hamplova
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Monlan Yuan
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Michael S Wolfe
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - David A Bennett
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL60612, USA
| | - Eunjung A Lee
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Bruce A Yankner
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Shukla M, Vincent B. Melatonin as a Harmonizing Factor of Circadian Rhythms, Neuronal Cell Cycle and Neurogenesis: Additional Arguments for Its Therapeutic Use in Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:1273-1298. [PMID: 36918783 PMCID: PMC10286584 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666230314142505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/31/2022] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The synthesis and release of melatonin in the brain harmonize various physiological functions. The apparent decline in melatonin levels with advanced aging is an aperture to the neurodegenerative processes. It has been indicated that down regulation of melatonin leads to alterations of circadian rhythm components, which further causes a desynchronization of several genes and results in an increased susceptibility to develop neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, as circadian rhythms and memory are intertwined, such rhythmic disturbances influence memory formation and recall. Besides, cell cycle events exhibit a remarkable oscillatory system, which is downstream of the circadian phenomena. The linkage between the molecular machinery of the cell cycle and complex fundamental regulatory proteins emphasizes the conjectural regulatory role of cell cycle components in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Among the mechanisms intervening long before the signs of the disease appear, the disturbances of the circadian cycle, as well as the alteration of the machinery of the cell cycle and impaired neurogenesis, must hold our interest. Therefore, in the present review, we propose to discuss the underlying mechanisms of action of melatonin in regulating the circadian rhythm, cell cycle components and adult neurogenesis in the context of AD pathogenesis with the view that it might further assist to identify new therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuri Shukla
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
- Present Address: Chulabhorn Graduate Institute, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, 10210, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Bruno Vincent
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Laboratory of Excellence DistALZ, Université Côte d'Azur, INSERM, CNRS, Sophia-Antipolis, 06560, Valbonne, France
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Ramón-Landreau M, Sánchez-Puelles C, López-Sánchez N, Lozano-Ureña A, Llabrés-Mas AM, Frade JM. E2F4DN Transgenic Mice: A Tool for the Evaluation of E2F4 as a Therapeutic Target in Neuropathology and Brain Aging. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012093. [PMID: 36292945 PMCID: PMC9603043 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
E2F4 was initially described as a transcription factor with a key function in the regulation of cell quiescence. Nevertheless, a number of recent studies have established that E2F4 can also play a relevant role in cell and tissue homeostasis, as well as tissue regeneration. For these non-canonical functions, E2F4 can also act in the cytoplasm, where it is able to interact with many homeostatic and synaptic regulators. Since E2F4 is expressed in the nervous system, it may fulfill a crucial role in brain function and homeostasis, being a promising multifactorial target for neurodegenerative diseases and brain aging. The regulation of E2F4 is complex, as it can be chemically modified through acetylation, from which we present evidence in the brain, as well as methylation, and phosphorylation. The phosphorylation of E2F4 within a conserved threonine motif induces cell cycle re-entry in neurons, while a dominant negative form of E2F4 (E2F4DN), in which the conserved threonines have been substituted by alanines, has been shown to act as a multifactorial therapeutic agent for Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We generated transgenic mice neuronally expressing E2F4DN. We have recently shown using this mouse strain that expression of E2F4DN in 5xFAD mice, a known murine model of AD, improved cognitive function, reduced neuronal tetraploidization, and induced a transcriptional program consistent with modulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide proteostasis and brain homeostasis recovery. 5xFAD/E2F4DN mice also showed reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis in both the cerebral cortex and hippocampus at 3-6 months of age. Here, we analyzed the immune response in 1 year-old 5xFAD/E2F4DN mice, concluding that reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis is maintained at this late stage. In addition, the expression of E2F4DN also reduced age-associated microgliosis in wild-type mice, thus stressing its role as a brain homeostatic agent. We conclude that E2F4DN transgenic mice represent a promising tool for the evaluation of E2F4 as a therapeutic target in neuropathology and brain aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan Ramón-Landreau
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Sánchez-Puelles
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Noelia López-Sánchez
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Anna Lozano-Ureña
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - Aina M. Llabrés-Mas
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28002 Madrid, Spain
| | - José M. Frade
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28002 Madrid, Spain
- Cajal International Neuroscience Center, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, UAH Science and Technology Campus, Avenida León 1, 28805 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-91-585-4740
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Pandey N, Vinod PK. Model scenarios for cell cycle re-entry in Alzheimer's disease. iScience 2022; 25:104543. [PMID: 35747391 PMCID: PMC9209725 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease. Aberrant production and aggregation of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide into plaques is a frequent feature of AD, but therapeutic approaches targeting Aβ accumulation fail to inhibit disease progression. The approved cholinesterase inhibitor drugs are symptomatic treatments. During human brain development, the progenitor cells differentiate into neurons and switch to a postmitotic state. However, cell cycle re-entry often precedes loss of neurons. We developed mathematical models of multiple routes leading to cell cycle re-entry in neurons that incorporate the crosstalk between cell cycle, neuronal, and apoptotic signaling mechanisms. We show that the integration of multiple feedback loops influences disease severity making the switch to pathological state irreversible. We observe that the transcriptional changes associated with this transition are also characteristics of the AD brain. We propose that targeting multiple arms of the feedback loop may bring about disease-modifying effects in AD. Developed mathematical models of cell cycle re-entry in Alzheimer's disease (AD) Integration of multiple feedback loops drives irreversible transition to AD Predicted transcriptional dysregulation is validated using AD gene expression data Inhibition of self-amplifying feedback loops brings about disease-modifying effects
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Affiliation(s)
- Nishtha Pandey
- Center for Computational Natural Sciences and Bioinformatics, International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad 500032 India
| | - P K Vinod
- Center for Computational Natural Sciences and Bioinformatics, International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad 500032 India
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Sasaguri H, Hashimoto S, Watamura N, Sato K, Takamura R, Nagata K, Tsubuki S, Ohshima T, Yoshiki A, Sato K, Kumita W, Sasaki E, Kitazume S, Nilsson P, Winblad B, Saito T, Iwata N, Saido TC. Recent Advances in the Modeling of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:807473. [PMID: 35431779 PMCID: PMC9009508 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.807473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since 1995, more than 100 transgenic (Tg) mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD) have been generated in which mutant amyloid precursor protein (APP) or APP/presenilin 1 (PS1) cDNA is overexpressed ( 1st generation models ). Although many of these models successfully recapitulate major pathological hallmarks of the disease such as amyloid β peptide (Aβ) deposition and neuroinflammation, they have suffered from artificial phenotypes in the form of overproduced or mislocalized APP/PS1 and their functional fragments, as well as calpastatin deficiency-induced early lethality, calpain activation, neuronal cell death without tau pathology, endoplasmic reticulum stresses, and inflammasome involvement. Such artifacts bring two important uncertainties into play, these being (1) why the artifacts arise, and (2) how they affect the interpretation of experimental results. In addition, destruction of endogenous gene loci in some Tg lines by transgenes has been reported. To overcome these concerns, single App knock-in mouse models harboring the Swedish and Beyreuther/Iberian mutations with or without the Arctic mutation (AppNL-G-F and AppNL-F mice) were developed ( 2nd generation models ). While these models are interesting given that they exhibit Aβ pathology, neuroinflammation, and cognitive impairment in an age-dependent manner, the model with the Artic mutation, which exhibits an extensive pathology as early as 6 months of age, is not suitable for investigating Aβ metabolism and clearance because the Aβ in this model is resistant to proteolytic degradation and is therefore prone to aggregation. Moreover, it cannot be used for preclinical immunotherapy studies owing to the discrete affinity it shows for anti-Aβ antibodies. The weakness of the latter model (without the Arctic mutation) is that the pathology may require up to 18 months before it becomes sufficiently apparent for experimental investigation. Nevertheless, this model was successfully applied to modulating Aβ pathology by genome editing, to revealing the differential roles of neprilysin and insulin-degrading enzyme in Aβ metabolism, and to identifying somatostatin receptor subtypes involved in Aβ degradation by neprilysin. In addition to discussing these issues, we also provide here a technical guide for the application of App knock-in mice to AD research. Subsequently, a new double knock-in line carrying the AppNL-F and Psen1 P117L/WT mutations was generated, the pathogenic effect of which was found to be synergistic. A characteristic of this 3rd generation model is that it exhibits more cored plaque pathology and neuroinflammation than the AppNL-G-F line, and thus is more suitable for preclinical studies of disease-modifying medications targeting Aβ. Furthermore, a derivative AppG-F line devoid of Swedish mutations which can be utilized for preclinical studies of β-secretase modifier(s) was recently created. In addition, we introduce a new model of cerebral amyloid angiopathy that may be useful for analyzing amyloid-related imaging abnormalities that can be caused by anti-Aβ immunotherapy. Use of the App knock-in mice also led to identification of the α-endosulfine-K ATP channel pathway as components of the somatostatin-evoked physiological mechanisms that reduce Aβ deposition via the activation of neprilysin. Such advances have provided new insights for the prevention and treatment of preclinical AD. Because tau pathology plays an essential role in AD pathogenesis, knock-in mice with human tau wherein the entire murine Mapt gene has been humanized were generated. Using these mice, the carboxy-terminal PDZ ligand of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (CAPON) was discovered as a mediator linking tau pathology to neurodegeneration and showed that tau humanization promoted pathological tau propagation. Finally, we describe and discuss the current status of mutant human tau knock-in mice and a non-human primate model of AD that we have successfully created.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Sasaguri
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
| | - Shoko Hashimoto
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
| | - Naoto Watamura
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
| | - Kaori Sato
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
- Laboratory for Molecular Brain Science, Department of Life Science and Medical Bioscience, Waseda University, Shinjuku City, Japan
| | - Risa Takamura
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
- Laboratory for Molecular Brain Science, Department of Life Science and Medical Bioscience, Waseda University, Shinjuku City, Japan
| | - Kenichi Nagata
- Department of Functional Anatomy and Neuroscience, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Satoshi Tsubuki
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
| | - Toshio Ohshima
- Laboratory for Molecular Brain Science, Department of Life Science and Medical Bioscience, Waseda University, Shinjuku City, Japan
| | - Atsushi Yoshiki
- Experimental Animal Division, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Kenya Sato
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
- Department of Marmoset Biology and Medicine, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Wakako Kumita
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
- Department of Marmoset Biology and Medicine, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Erika Sasaki
- Department of Marmoset Biology and Medicine, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Japan
- Laboratory for Marmoset Neural Architecture, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
| | - Shinobu Kitazume
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, School of Health Sciences, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Per Nilsson
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Bioclinicum, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bengt Winblad
- Division of Neurogeriatrics, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Bioclinicum, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Takashi Saito
- Department of Neurocognitive Science, Institute of Brain Science, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya, Japan
- Department of Neuroscience and Pathobiology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Nobuhisa Iwata
- Department of Genome-Based Drug Discovery and Leading Medical Research Core Unit, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Takaomi C. Saido
- Laboratory for Proteolytic Neuroscience, RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, Japan
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Kisby GE, Spencer PS. Genotoxic Damage During Brain Development Presages Prototypical Neurodegenerative Disease. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:752153. [PMID: 34924930 PMCID: PMC8675606 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.752153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Western Pacific Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Parkinsonism-Dementia Complex (ALS/PDC) is a disappearing prototypical neurodegenerative disorder (tau-dominated polyproteinopathy) linked with prior exposure to phytogenotoxins in cycad seed used for medicine and/or food. The principal cycad genotoxin, methylazoxymethanol (MAM), forms reactive carbon-centered ions that alkylate nucleic acids in fetal rodent brain and, depending on the timing of systemic administration, induces persistent developmental abnormalities of the cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and retina. Whereas administration of MAM prenatally or postnatally can produce animal models of epilepsy, schizophrenia or ataxia, administration to adult animals produces little effect on brain structure or function. The neurotoxic effects of MAM administered to rats during cortical brain development (specifically, gestation day 17) are used to model the histological, neurophysiological and behavioral deficits of human schizophrenia, a condition that may precede or follow clinical onset of motor neuron disease in subjects with sporadic ALS and ALS/PDC. While studies of migrants to and from communities impacted by ALS/PDC indicate the degenerative brain disorder may be acquired in juvenile and adult life, a proportion of indigenous cases shows neurodevelopmental aberrations in the cerebellum and retina consistent with MAM exposure in utero. MAM induces specific patterns of DNA damage and repair that associate with increased tau expression in primary rat neuronal cultures and with brain transcriptional changes that parallel those associated with human ALS and Alzheimer's disease. We examine MAM in relation to neurodevelopment, epigenetic modification, DNA damage/replicative stress, genomic instability, somatic mutation, cell-cycle reentry and cellular senescence. Since the majority of neurodegenerative disease lacks a solely inherited genetic basis, research is needed to explore the hypothesis that early-life exposure to genotoxic agents may trigger or promote molecular events that culminate in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glen E. Kisby
- College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Lebanon, OR, United States
| | - Peter S. Spencer
- School of Medicine (Neurology), Oregon Institute of Occupational Health Sciences, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, United States
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López-Sánchez N, Garrido-García A, Ramón-Landreau M, Cano-Daganzo V, Frade JM. E2F4-Based Gene Therapy Mitigates the Phenotype of the Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model 5xFAD. Neurotherapeutics 2021; 18:2484-2503. [PMID: 34766258 PMCID: PMC8804140 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-021-01151-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
After decades of unfruitful work, no effective therapies are available for Alzheimer's disease (AD), likely due to its complex etiology that requires a multifactorial therapeutic approach. We have recently shown using transgenic mice that E2 factor 4 (E2F4), a transcription factor that regulates cell quiescence and tissue homeostasis, and controls gene networks affected in AD, represents a good candidate for a multifactorial targeting of AD. Here we show that the expression of a dominant negative form of human E2F4 (hE2F4DN), unable to become phosphorylated in a Thr-conserved motif known to modulate E2F4 activity, is an effective and safe AD multifactorial therapeutic agent. Neuronal expression of hE2F4DN in homozygous 5xFAD (h5xFAD) mice after systemic administration of an AAV.PHP.B-hSyn1.hE2F4DN vector reduced the production and accumulation of Aβ in the hippocampus, attenuated reactive astrocytosis and microgliosis, abolished neuronal tetraploidization, and prevented cognitive impairment evaluated by Y-maze and Morris water maze, without triggering side effects. This treatment also reversed other alterations observed in h5xFAD mice such as paw-clasping behavior and body weight loss. Our results indicate that E2F4DN-based gene therapy is a promising therapeutic approach against AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia López-Sánchez
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, 28002, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alberto Garrido-García
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, 28002, Madrid, Spain
| | - Morgan Ramón-Landreau
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, 28002, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vanesa Cano-Daganzo
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, 28002, Madrid, Spain
| | - José M Frade
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology, Cajal Institute, 28002, Madrid, Spain.
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