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Jandrasits D, Züst R, Siegrist D, Engler OB, Weber B, Schmidt KM, Jonsdottir HR. Third-generation smallpox vaccines induce low-level cross-protecting neutralizing antibodies against Monkeypox virus in laboratory workers. Heliyon 2024; 10:e31490. [PMID: 38826712 PMCID: PMC11141380 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e31490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Due to the discontinuation of routine smallpox vaccination after its eradication in 1980, a large part of the human population remains naïve against smallpox and other members of the orthopoxvirus genus. As a part of biosafety personnel protection programs, laboratory workers receive prophylactic vaccinations against diverse infectious agents, including smallpox. Here, we studied the levels of cross-protecting neutralizing antibodies as well as total IgG induced by either first- or third-generation smallpox vaccines against Monkeypox virus, using a clinical isolate from the 2022 outbreak. Serum neutralization tests indicated better overall neutralization capacity after vaccination with first-generation smallpox vaccines, compared to an attenuated third-generation vaccine. Results obtained from total IgG ELISA, however, did not show higher induction of orthopoxvirus-specific IgGs in first-generation vaccine recipients. Taken together, our results indicate a lower level of cross-protecting neutralizing antibodies against Monkeypox virus in recipients of third-generation smallpox vaccine compared to first-generation vaccine recipients, although total IgG levels were comparable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Jandrasits
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Microbiology, Department for Environment Constructions and Design, University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI), 6850, Mendrisio, Switzerland
| | - Roland Züst
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, Switzerland
| | - Denise Siegrist
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, Switzerland
| | - Olivier B. Engler
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Weber
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, Switzerland
| | | | - Hulda R. Jonsdottir
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, Switzerland
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Inselspital University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Grabenstein JD, Hacker A. Vaccines against mpox: MVA-BN and LC16m8. Expert Rev Vaccines 2024; 23:796-811. [PMID: 39188013 DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2024.2397006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 08/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Global outbreaks involving mpox clade IIb began in mid-2022. Today, clade IIb and clade I outbreaks continue. Reliable mpox vaccines can prevent serious mpox disease and death. AREAS COVERED Globally, two vaccines hold mpox indications, regardless of mpox viral clade: MVA-BN (Bavarian Nordic) and LC16m8 (KM Biologics). This review summarizes the human and pivotal animal data establishing safety and efficacy for MVA-BN and LC16m8, including real-world evidence gathered during mpox outbreaks from 2022 through 2024. EXPERT OPINION Some regulatory decisions for MVA-BN and LC16m8 followed pathways based on surrogate outcomes, including lethal-challenge studies in nonhuman primates, among other atypical aspects. Nonetheless, MVA-BN and LC16m8 hold unencumbered registration in multiple countries. Effectiveness of MVA-BN as primary preventive vaccination (PPV) in humans against clade IIb mpox is clear from real-world studies; effectiveness of LC16m8 against clade IIb is likely from surrogate endpoints. Effectiveness of MVA-BN and LC16m8 as PPV against more-lethal clade I is likely, based on animal-challenge studies with multiple orthopoxvirus species and other studies. Both vaccines have solid safety records. MVA-BN's replication incompetence favors adoption, whereas LC16m8 has more pediatric data. Additional real-world evidence, in additional geographic settings and special populations (e.g. pregnancy, immune suppression, atopic dermatitis), is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam Hacker
- Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness & Innovation, Oslo, Norway
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Huston J, Curtis S, Egelund EF. Brincidofovir: A Novel Agent for the Treatment of Smallpox. Ann Pharmacother 2023; 57:1198-1206. [PMID: 36688308 DOI: 10.1177/10600280231151751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This article reviews the published data encompassing the development, pharmacology, efficacy, and safety of brincidofovir, a nucleotide analogue DNA polymerase inhibitor developed for the treatment of smallpox. DATA SOURCES A literature review was conducted in PubMed, MEDLINE, and Clinicaltrials.gov from inception up to December 2022, using terms Tembexa, brincidofovir, CMX001, smallpox treatment, and variola treatment. STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION Data were limited to studies published in English language, which evaluated the efficacy and safety of brincidofovir. DATA SYNTHESIS Two surrogate animal models were included in the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) decision to approve brincidofovir: ectromelia virus in mice and rabbitpox in rabbits. Phases 2 and 3 studies established safety for approval. Brincidofovir biweekly for the treatment of disseminated adenovirus disease resulted in all-cause mortality, ranging from 13.8% to 29%. In a study for cytomegalovirus prophylaxis, patients with clinically significant cytomegalovirus infection through week 24 posttransplant was 51.2% with brincidofovir and 52.3% with placebo. CONCLUSIONS Brincidofovir adds a second oral agent to treat smallpox, with a different mechanism of action than tecovirimat. In the event of a smallpox outbreak, prompt treatment will be necessary to contain its spread. Brincidofovir shows efficacy in surrogate animal models. In healthy volunteers and individuals treated, or used as prophylaxis, for cytomegalovirus or adenovirus, the primary adverse events were gastrointestinal in addition to transient hepatotoxicity. Additionally, excessive deaths were observed in hematopoietic cell transplant patients receiving it as cytomegalovirus prophylaxis, requiring a black box warning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Huston
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Jacksonville, FL USA
| | - Stacey Curtis
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Jacksonville, FL USA
| | - Eric F Egelund
- Department of Pharmacotherapy and Translational Research, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Jacksonville, FL USA
- Infectious Disease Pharmacokinetics Laboratory, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Yakubitskiy SN, Sergeev AA, Titova KA, Shulgina IS, Starostina EV, Borgoyakova MB, Karpenko LI, Shchelkunov SN. Effect of the ati Gene Deletion on the Pathogenicity and Immunogenicity of the Vaccinia Virus. Acta Naturae 2023; 15:82-90. [PMID: 37908769 PMCID: PMC10615193 DOI: 10.32607/actanaturae.17872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the nonvirion proteins of the vaccinia virus (VACV), a 94-kDa long protein is most abundantly present; the protein is a truncated form of the 150-kDa A-type inclusion (ATI) protein of the cowpox virus encoded by the ati gene. This VACV protein does not form intracellular ATIs, being as it is a major immunogen upon infection/immunization of humans or animals with the VACV. Antibodies specific to this protein are not virus-neutralizing. The present study focused on the effect of the production of this nonstructural major immunogenic VACV protein on the manifestation of pathogenicity and immunogenicity of the virus in the BALB/c mouse model of infection. In order to introduce a targeted deletion into the VACV LIVP genome, the recombinant integration/deletion plasmid pΔati was constructed and further used to generate the recombinant virus LIVPΔati. The pathogenicity of the VACV LIVP and LIVPΔati strains was studied in 3-week-old mice. The mice were intranasally infected with the viruses at a dose of 107 pfu; 50% of the animals infected with the parent LIVP strain died, while infection with the LIVPΔati strain led to the death of only 20% of the mice. Intradermal vaccination of mice aged 6- weeks with the LIVPΔati virus statistically significantly increased the production of VACV-specific IgG, compared to that after intradermal vaccination with VACV LIVP. Meanwhile, no differences were noted in the cell-mediated immune response to the vaccination of mice with VACV LIVP or LIVPΔati, which was assessed by ELISpot according to the number of splenocytes producing IFN-γ in response to stimulation with virus-specific peptides. Intranasal infection of mice with lethal doses of the cowpox virus or the ectromelia virus on day 60 post-immunization with the studied VACV variants demonstrated that the mutant LIVPΔati elicits a stronger protective response compared to the parent LIVP.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. N. Yakubitskiy
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - A. A. Sergeev
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - K. A. Titova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - I. S. Shulgina
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - E. V. Starostina
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - M. B. Borgoyakova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - L. I. Karpenko
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - S. N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
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Oreshko VV, Kovaleva KS, Mordvinova ED, Yarovaya OI, Gatilov YV, Shcherbakov DN, Bormotov NI, Serova OA, Shishkina LN, Salakhutdinov NF. Synthesis and Antiviral Properties of Camphor-Derived Iminothiazolidine-4-Ones and 2,3-Dihydrothiazoles. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27154761. [PMID: 35897931 PMCID: PMC9331314 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27154761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A set of heterocyclic products was synthesized from natural (+)-camphor and semi-synthetic (−)-camphor. Then, 2-Imino-4-thiazolidinones and 2,3-dihydrothiazoles were obtained using a three-step procedure. For the synthesized compounds, their antiviral activity against the vaccinia virus and Marburg virus was studied. New promising agents active against both viruses were found among the tested compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav V. Oreshko
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentiev Ave. 9, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (V.V.O.); (K.S.K.); (Y.V.G.); (N.F.S.)
- Zelman Institute for Medicine and Psychology, Novosibirsk State University, Pirogova St., 1, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Kseniya S. Kovaleva
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentiev Ave. 9, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (V.V.O.); (K.S.K.); (Y.V.G.); (N.F.S.)
| | - Ekaterina D. Mordvinova
- Zelman Institute for Medicine and Psychology, Novosibirsk State University, Pirogova St., 1, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (D.N.S.); (N.I.B.); (O.A.S.); (L.N.S.)
| | - Olga I. Yarovaya
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentiev Ave. 9, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (V.V.O.); (K.S.K.); (Y.V.G.); (N.F.S.)
- Zelman Institute for Medicine and Psychology, Novosibirsk State University, Pirogova St., 1, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-383-330-88-70
| | - Yuri V. Gatilov
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentiev Ave. 9, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (V.V.O.); (K.S.K.); (Y.V.G.); (N.F.S.)
| | - Dmitry N. Shcherbakov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (D.N.S.); (N.I.B.); (O.A.S.); (L.N.S.)
| | - Nikolai I. Bormotov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (D.N.S.); (N.I.B.); (O.A.S.); (L.N.S.)
| | - Olga A. Serova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (D.N.S.); (N.I.B.); (O.A.S.); (L.N.S.)
| | - Larisa N. Shishkina
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, 630559 Koltsovo, Russia; (D.N.S.); (N.I.B.); (O.A.S.); (L.N.S.)
| | - Nariman F. Salakhutdinov
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, N. N. Vorozhtsov Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentiev Ave. 9, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (V.V.O.); (K.S.K.); (Y.V.G.); (N.F.S.)
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6
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Development and Validation of a Method of Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Quantification of ST-246 (Tecovirimat) in Human Plasma. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27113577. [PMID: 35684513 PMCID: PMC9182130 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27113577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to develop and validate a sensitive and robust method of liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to quantitate ST-246 (tecovirimat) in plasma using an internal standard (2-hydroxy-N-{3,5-dioxo-4-azatetracyclo [5.3.2.02.6.08.10]dodec-11-en-4-yl}-5-methylbenzamide). The method was validated in negative multiple reaction monitoring mode following recommendations of the European Medicines Agency for the validation of bioanalytical methods. The calibration curve for the analyte was linear in the 10−2500 ng/mL range with determination coefficient R2 > 0.99. Intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision for three concentrations of quality control were <15%. Testing of long-term stability of ST-246 (tecovirimat) in plasma showed no degradation at −20 °C for at least 3 months. The method was applied to a clinical assay of a new antipoxvirus compound, NIOCH-14. Thus, the proposed method is suitable for therapeutic drug monitoring of ST-246 (tecovirimat) itself and of NIOCH-14 as its metabolic precursor.
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Monkeypox 2022 identify-isolate-inform (3I): A tool for frontline clinicians for a zoonosis with escalating human community transmission. One Health 2022; 15:100410. [PMID: 36249992 PMCID: PMC9534172 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2022.100410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox 2022, a zoonotic virus similar to smallpox, presented as a rapidly escalating human outbreak with community transmission outside endemic regions of Africa. In just over one month of detection, confirmed cases escalated to over 3300, with reports of patients in at least 43 non-African nations. Mechanisms of transmission in animals and the reservoir host remain uncertain; spread from humans to wild or domestic animals risks the creation of new endemic zones. While initial cases were reported in men who have sex with men (MSM), monkeypox is not considered a sexually transmitted infection. Anyone with close contact with an infected person, aerosolized infectious material (e.g., from shaken bedsheets), or contact with fomites or infected animals is at risk. In humans, monkeypox typically presents with a non-specific prodromal phase followed by a classic rash with an incubation period of 5–21 days (usually 6–13 days). The prodrome may be subclinical, and the monkeypox virus may be transmissible from person-to-person before observed symptom onset. Most clinicians are unfamiliar with monkeypox. Information is rapidly evolving, producing an urgent need for immediate access to clear, concise, fact-based, and actionable information for frontline healthcare workers in prehospital, emergency departments/hospitals, and acute care/sexual transmitted infection clinics. This paper provides a novel Identify-Isolate-Inform (3I) Tool for the early detection and management of patients under investigation for monkeypox 2022. Patients are identified as potentially exposed or infected after an initial assessment of risk factors and signs/symptoms. Management of exposed patients includes consideration of quarantine and post-exposure prophylaxis with a smallpox vaccine. For infectious patients, providers must immediately don personal protective equipment and isolate patients. Healthcare workers must report suspected and confirmed cases in humans or animals to public health authorities. This innovative 3I Tool will assist emergency, primary care, and prehospital clinicians in effectively managing persons with suspected or confirmed monkeypox. The paper reviews the One Health aspect of monkeypox. The epidemiology of this virus has evolved from a rare zoonosis to a multinational outbreak. This paper describes the classic and new clinical manifestations of monkeypox. Transmission, prevention, treatment, sampling, testing, and safe practices are presented. The work produced an innovative Identify-Isolate-Inform (3I) Tool for monkeypox 2022.
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Ferrier A, Frenois-Veyrat G, Schvoerer E, Henard S, Jarjaval F, Drouet I, Timera H, Boutin L, Mosca E, Peyrefitte C, Ferraris O. Fatal Cowpox Virus Infection in Human Fetus, France, 2017. Emerg Infect Dis 2021; 27:2570-2577. [PMID: 34352194 PMCID: PMC8462324 DOI: 10.3201/eid2710.204818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) has an animal reservoir and is typically transmitted to humans by contact with infected animals. In 2017, CPXV infection of a pregnant woman in France led to the death of her fetus. Fetal death after maternal orthopoxvirus (smallpox) vaccination has been reported; however, this patient had not been vaccinated. Investigation of the patient’s domestic animals failed to demonstrate prevalence of CPXV infection among them. The patient’s diagnosis was confirmed by identifying CPXV DNA in all fetal and maternal biopsy samples and infectious CPXV in biopsy but not plasma samples. This case of fetal death highlights the risk for complications of orthopoxvirus infection during pregnancy. Among orthopoxviruses, fetal infection has been reported for variola virus and vaccinia virus; our findings suggest that CPXV poses the same threats for infection complications as vaccinia virus.
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King EJ, Dudina VI. COVID-19 in Russia: Should we expect a novel response to the novel coronavirus? Glob Public Health 2021; 16:1237-1250. [PMID: 33736569 DOI: 10.1080/17441692.2021.1900317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Russia provides an important case study in its COVID-19 response by a country that has one of the largest epidemics, increasingly authoritarian government policies, and important domestic and international political influence. In this article, we describe and explain Russia's public health and social policy responses to COVID-19 - earlier in the pandemic when the concern was the border with China, to later when there were confirmed cases in all regions in the country. In the past, Russia has served as an interesting case for exploring global health politics and infectious diseases. Thus, we position our analysis of the COVID-19 response through a reflection on infectious disease control in the Soviet Union and contemporary Russia. We explore the following: government control, contention with official statistics, (dis-)information, (mis-)trust, and vulnerabilities of medical care workers. We also discuss how Russia is reinforcing its role in global health during the pandemic, for example through vaccine development and foreign humanitarian aid. We situate our analysis in the historical, political, and social contexts to help explain Russia's response to the novel coronavirus pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth J King
- Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Victoria I Dudina
- Department of Sociology, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia
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Struzik J, Szulc-Dąbrowska L. NF-κB as an Important Factor in Optimizing Poxvirus-Based Vaccines against Viral Infections. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9121001. [PMID: 33260450 PMCID: PMC7760304 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9121001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses are large dsDNA viruses that are regarded as good candidates for vaccine vectors. Because the members of the Poxviridae family encode numerous immunomodulatory proteins in their genomes, it is necessary to carry out certain modifications in poxviral candidates for vaccine vectors to improve the vaccine. Currently, several poxvirus-based vaccines targeted at viral infections are under development. One of the important aspects of the influence of poxviruses on the immune system is that they encode a large array of inhibitors of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), which is the key element of both innate and adaptive immunity. Importantly, the NF-κB transcription factor induces the mechanisms associated with adaptive immunological memory involving the activation of effector and memory T cells upon vaccination. Since poxviruses encode various NF-κB inhibitor proteins, before the use of poxviral vaccine vectors, modifications that influence NF-κB activation and consequently affect the immunogenicity of the vaccine should be carried out. This review focuses on NF-κB as an essential factor in the optimization of poxviral vaccines against viral infections.
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