Between conflict and reciprocal habituation: Human-wild boar coexistence in urban areas

Urbanization is an ongoing global environmental change. Wildlife may respond using anthropized environments and resources, which is known as synurbization, creating human-wildlife interactions. Wild boar (Sus scrofa) populations have become common in urban areas, including the metropolitan area of Barcelona. Humans respond to wild boars in urban environments either habituating, with lower conflict perception and higher wild boar acceptance, or sensitizing, with reduced tolerance towards wild boars. Since citizen response influences conflict management, this study analysed the drivers of human responses, which should allow adopting socially-accepted measures to manage synurbic wild boar populations. Interviews to 1956 Barcelona citizens were performed, grouping the response variables to score citizen and urban characteristics, as well as citizen lay-knowledge, emotions, experiences, and perception of wild boar. Five citizen clusters were identified: cluster 1 (3.3 %), highly habituated and active wild boar feeder; cluster 2 (11.3 %), habituated to wild boars with positive feelings; cluster 3 (19.8 %), not habituated nor sensitized, willing to maintain urban wild boar populations; cluster 4 (29.1 %), sensitized and concerned, defending to reduce wild boar; and cluster 5 (40.1 %), highly sensitized and proposing to reduce or even eliminate wild boar. Positive attitudes associated wild boar to aesthetic value, closeness to nature and sympathy, and were more frequent in young citizens with urban background and high education, animal lovers habituated to wild boar through contact without negative experiences. Conversely, negative attitudes were concerned about city fouling, safety or health, accepted lethal management measures, and were more frequent in older citizens with rural background, lower education, low contact with wild boar or sensitized through negative experiences. We document for the first time the sensitization and reciprocal habituation of humans to wild boar in urban areas. The identification of the drivers of citizen attitudes towards urban wildlife should be useful to design socially-accepted management measures.

Applying a Random Encounter Model to Estimate the Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus) Density from Camera Traps in the Hindu Raj Mountains, Pakistan

Estimating the population density of vulnerable species, such as the elusive and nocturnal Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), is essential for wildlife conservation and management. We used camera traps and a Random Encounter Model (REM) to estimate the population density of U. thibetanus during the autumn and winter seasons in the Hindu Raj Mountains. We installed 23 camera traps from October to December 2020 and acquired 66 independent pictures of Asiatic black bears over 428 trap nights. Our results showed that the bears preferred lowland areas with the presence of Quercus spp. We estimated, using the REM, a population density of U. thibetanus of 1.875 (standard error = 0.185) per square kilometer, which is significantly higher than that in other habitats. Our results showed that during autumn and winter, the bear population density tends to concentrate at lower elevations. Forest cover showed a positive correlation with the rates of bear encounters unlike the Euclidean distance to human settlements, altitude, and aspect variables. The approaches used here are cost-effective for estimating the population density of rare and vulnerable species such as U. thibetanus, and can be used to estimate their population density in Pakistan. Population density estimation can identify areas where the bears live and human-bear conflicts occurred and use this information in future wildlife management plans.

Human-Wild Animal Conflict in Banja Woreda, Awi Zone, Ethiopia

Human-wild animal conflict has serious conservation consequences, both for populations of wild animals and for the people who live around wild animals’ habitats. The aim of this study was to assess the human-wild animal conflict in Banja Woreda, Awi Zone, Ethiopia. First, the area was selected purposively because it is expected to be prone to a high level of human-wild animal conflict, and then the selected areas were stratified based on the distance to wild animals’ habitats. A total of 95 household heads (HHs) from the two kebeles were interviewed using structured and semistructured questionnaires. Additional information was also gathered through focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews, and personal observation during data collection. About 84 (88%) of the respondents replied that wild animals had an effect on the livelihood of the local communities through both crop and livestock loss. The crop and animal loss was different across the distance categories of the study area ( $P<0.05$ ). The highest proportion of loss was reported in the closest settlement than far-located settlements. The chi-square association test shows that there was a significant association ( $P<0.05$ ) between livelihood activity across crops and domestic animal loss. The farmers who led their livelihoods in both farming and livestock activity reported higher animal and crop losses than the only farming or livestock activity. The crop types that were more raided by wild animals were maize and potato. The risks of crop raiding were significantly different among crop varieties ( $P<0.05$ ). Wild animals affected crops in different development stages, and mature stage ranked the first followed by fruiting stage. Crop growth stages that were attacked by wild animals showed significant variations ( $P<0.05$ ). Of the crop type that was attacked by wild animals, potato was highly attacked, which reaches to 113.8 quintals (28%), followed by maize 96 quintals (23%) and small millet 74.7 quintals (18%) within three years. The loss of crops in the kebeles was not significantly different ( $P>0.05$ ). Wild animals also affected the domestic animals; accordingly, 79 (83.2%) of the respondents replied that wild animals attacked all domestic animals and the remaining 16 (16.8%) said wild animals attacked goats, sheep, and chickens. However, the animal loss in the kebeles was not significantly different ( $P>0.05$ ). The trend of the population status of wild animals was significantly different among the perceptions of respondents ( $P<0.05$ ). The settlement near the forest habitat of wild animals and habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and deforestation were the major causes of conflict. The proportion of the causes of human-wild animal conflict in the area was significantly different ( $P<0.05$ ). According to the respondents, the most effective controlling mechanisms of the conflict were guarding, followed by fencing and slipping at night in cropland. Out of the total number of respondents, 65 (68.4%) said guarding is the most effective conflict control mechanism, for protecting both crop and livestock. To limit the negative impact of human-wild animal conflict, good wild animal habitat management is required, such as minimizing agricultural expansion and overgrazing, demarcating the forest habitats for wild animals only, and creating awareness among local communities.