The Pathogenesis of Aspergillus fumigatus, Host Defense Mechanisms, and the Development of AFMP4 Antigen as a Vaccine

Fungal vaccines and adjuvants: a tool to reveal the interaction between host and fungi

Fungal infections are incurring high risks in a range from superficial mucosal discomforts (such as oropharyngeal candidiasis and vulvovaginal candidiasis) to disseminated life-threatening diseases (such as invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and cryptococcal meningitis) and becoming a global health problem in especially immunodeficient population. The major obstacle to conquer fungal harassment lies in the presence of increasing resistance to conventional antifungal agents used in newly clinically isolated strains. Although recombinant cytokines and mono-/poly-clonal antibodies are added into antifungal armamentarium, more effective antimycotic drugs are exceedingly demanded. It is comforting that the development of fungal vaccines and adjuvants opens up a window to brighten the prospective way in the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of fungal assaults. In this review, we focus on the progression of several major fungal vaccines devised for the control of Candida spp., Aspergillus spp., Cryptococcus spp., Coccidioides spp., Paracoccidioides spp., Blastomyces spp., Histoplasma spp., Pneumocystis spp. as well as the adjuvants adopted. We then expound the interaction between fungal vaccines/adjuvants and host innate (macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils), humoral (IgG, IgM and IgA) and cellular (Th1, Th2, Th17 and Tc17) immune responses which generally experience immune recognition of pattern recognition receptors, activation of immune cells, and clearance of invaded fungi. Furthermore, we anticipate an in-depth understanding of immunomodulatory properties of univalent and multivalent vaccines against diverse opportunistic fungi, providing helpful information in the design of novel fungal vaccines and adjuvants.

Microplastics affect soil-plant system: Implications for rhizosphere biology and fitness of sage (Salvia officinalis L.)

A mesocosm experiment was set-up to investigate the effects of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) fragments deriving from plastic film on soil ecology, rhizosphere and plant (Salvia officinalis L.) fitness. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and 16S metagenomic analysis was adopted to evaluate taxonomic and functional shifts of both soil and rhizosphere under the influence of microplastics (MPs). Photosynthetic parameters and enzymes involved in oxidative stress were assessed to unveil the plant physiological state. MP fragments were analysed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and metagenomics to investigate the plastisphere. Microbial biomarkers of MPs pollution were identified in soil and rhizosphere, reinforcing the concept of molecular biomonitoring. Overall, Bacillus, Nocardioides and Streptomyces genera are bacterial biomarkers of MPs pollution in soil whereas Aspergillus, Fusarium and Trichoderma genera, and Nectriaceae family are fungal biomarkers of MPs polluted soil. The data show that the presence of MPs promotes the abundance of taxa involved in the soil N cycle, but simultaneously reduces the endophytic interaction capability and enhances pathogen related functions at the rhizosphere level. A significant decrease in chlorophyll levels and increase of oxidative stress enzymes was observed in plants grown in MPs-polluted soil. The SEM observations of MPs fragments revealed a complex colonisation, where bacteria (Bacillus in MPSo and Microvirga in MPRz) and fungi (Aspergillus in MPSo and Trichoderma in MPRz) represent the main colonisers. The results demonstrate that the presence of MPs causes changes in the soil and rhizosphere microbial community and functions leading to negative effects on plant fitness.

Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation in Septic Cardiomyopathy Caused by Aspergillus Infection: The First Case Report

Septic cardiomyopathy (SCM) is often associated with bacterial infections but also occurs with infections with viruses such as influenza and spirochetes, including syphilis. However, there has been no systematic investigation into whether Aspergillus infections can cause septic cardiomyopathy. We report on such a case for the first time in a patient without immunodeficiency. Therefore, clinicians should be concerned with septic cardiomyopathy caused by some atypical or rare pathogens when admitting such patients.

Uncovering the diversity of pathogenic invaders: insights into protozoa, fungi, and worm infections

Post COVID-19, there has been renewed interest in understanding the pathogens challenging the human health and evaluate our preparedness towards dealing with health challenges in future. In this endeavour, it is not only the bacteria and the viruses, but a greater community of pathogens. Such pathogenic microorganisms, include protozoa, fungi and worms, which establish a distinct variety of disease-causing agents with the capability to impact the host's well-being as well as the equity of ecosystem. This review summarises the peculiar characteristics and pathogenic mechanisms utilized by these disease-causing organisms. It features their role in causing infection in the concerned host and emphasizes the need for further research. Understanding the layers of pathogenesis encompassing the concerned infectious microbes will help expand targeted inferences with relation to the cause of the infection. This would strengthen and augment benefit to the host's health along with the maintenance of ecosystem network, exhibiting host-pathogen interaction cycle. This would be key to discover the layers underlying differential disease severities in response to similar/same pathogen infection.

Diagnosis of Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis: Clinical, Radiological or Laboratory?

Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis (CPA) is a chronic progressive lung disease associated with a poor prognosis and a 5-year mortality rate of approximately 40-50%. The disease is characterized by slowly progressive destruction of the lung parenchyma, in the form of multiple cavities, nodules, infiltrates or fibrosis. CPA can be challenging to diagnose due to its non-specific symptoms and similarities with other respiratory conditions combined with the poor awareness of the medical community about the disease. This can result in delayed treatment even for years and worsening of the patient's condition. Serological tests certainly play a significant role in diagnosing CPA but cannot be interpreted without radiological confirmation of CPA. Although many data are published on this hot topic, there is yet no single definitive test for diagnosing CPA, and a multidisciplinary approach which involves a combination of clinical picture, radiological findings, microbiological results and exclusion of other mimicking diseases, is essential for the accurate diagnosis of CPA.

Aspergillus clavatus UEM 04: An efficient producer of glucoamylase and α-amylase able to hydrolyze gelatinized and raw starch

The best amylolytic activity production by Aspergillus clavatus UEM 04 occurred in submersed culture, with starch, for 72 h, at 25 °C, and 100 rpm. Exclusion chromatography partially purified two enzymes, which ran as unique bands in SDS-PAGE with approximately 84 kDa. LC-MS/MS identified a glucoamylase (GH15) and an α-amylase (GH13_1) as the predominant proteins and other co-purified proteins. Zn2+, Cu2+, and Mn2+ activated the glucoamylase, and SDS, Zn2+, Fe3+, and Cu2+ inhibited the α-amylase. The α-amylase optimum pH was 6.5. The optimal temperatures for the glucoamylase and α-amylase were 50 °C and 40 °C, and the Tm was 53.1 °C and 56.3 °C, respectively. Both enzymes remained almost fully active for 28-32 h at 40 °C, but the α-amylase thermal stability was calcium-dependent. Furthermore, the glucoamylase and α-amylase KM for starch were 2.95 and 1.0 mg/mL, respectively. Still, the Vmax was 0.28 μmol/min of released glucose for glucoamylase and 0.1 mg/min of consumed starch for α-amylase. Moreover, the glucoamylase showed greater affinity for amylopectin and α-amylase for maltodextrin. Additionally, both enzymes efficiently degraded raw starch. At last, glucose was the main product of glucoamylase, and α-amylase produced mainly maltose from gelatinized soluble starch hydrolysis.

Addressing Microbial Resistance Worldwide: Challenges over Controlling Life-Threatening Fungal Infections

Fungal infections are a serious global concern because of their ability to spread and colonize host tissues in immunocompromised individuals. Such infections have been frequently reported worldwide and are currently gaining clinical research relevance owing to their resistant character, representing a bottleneck in treating affected people. Resistant fungi are an emergent public health threat. The upsurge of such pathogens has led to new research toward unraveling the destructive potential evoked by these species. Some fungi-grouped into Candida, Aspergillus, and Cryptococcus-are causative agents of severe and systemic infections. They are associated with high mortality rates and have recently been described as sources of coinfection in COVID-hospitalized patients. Despite the efforts to elucidate the challenges of colonization, dissemination, and infection severity, the immunopathogenesis of fungal diseases remains a pivotal characteristic in fungal burden elimination. The struggle between the host immune system and the physiological strategies of the fungi to maintain cellular viability is complex. In this brief review, we highlight the relevance of drug resistance phenotypes in fungi of clinical significance, taking into consideration their physiopathology and how the scientific community could orchestrate their efforts to avoid fungal infection dissemination and deaths.

Specific Focus on Antifungal Peptides against Azole Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Perspectives

The prevalence of fungal infections is increasing worldwide, especially that of aspergillosis, which previously only affected people with immunosuppression. Aspergillus fumigatus can cause allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and endangers public health due to resistance to azole-type antimycotics such as fluconazole. Antifungal peptides are viable alternatives that combat infection by forming pores in membranes through electrostatic interactions with the phospholipids as well as cell death to peptides that inhibit protein synthesis and inhibit cell replication. Engineering antifungal peptides with nanotechnology can enhance the efficacy of these therapeutics at lower doses and reduce immune responses. This manuscript explains how antifungal peptides combat antifungal-resistant aspergillosis and also how rational peptide design with nanotechnology and artificial intelligence can engineer peptides to be a feasible antifungal alternative.

Plant-Microbe Interaction: Aboveground to Belowground, from the Good to the Bad

Soil health and fertility issues are constantly addressed in the agricultural industry. Through the continuous and prolonged use of chemical heavy agricultural systems, most agricultural lands have been impacted, resulting in plateaued or reduced productivity. As such, to invigorate the agricultural industry, we would have to resort to alternative practices that will restore soil health and fertility. Therefore, in recent decades, studies have been directed towards taking a Magellan voyage of the soil rhizosphere region, to identify the diversity, density, and microbial population structure of the soil, and predict possible ways to restore soil health. Microbes that inhabit this region possess niche functions, such as the stimulation or promotion of plant growth, disease suppression, management of toxicity, and the cycling and utilization of nutrients. Therefore, studies should be conducted to identify microbes or groups of organisms that have assigned niche functions. Based on the above, this article reviews the aboveground and below-ground microbiomes, their roles in plant immunity, physiological functions, and challenges and tools available in studying these organisms. The information collected over the years may contribute toward future applications, and in designing sustainable agriculture.