Gender differences in the association between serum γ-glutamyltransferase and blood pressure change: a prospective community-based cohort study

Gamma-glutamyl transferase and risk of all-cause and disease-specific mortality: a nationwide cohort study

Population-based data regarding the prognostic implication of gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) have been inconsistent. We examined the association of GGT with all-cause and disease-specific mortality. Using the Korean nationwide database, we included 9,687,066 subjects without viral hepatitis or cirrhosis who underwent a health examination in 2009. Subjects were classified into three groups by sex-specific tertile of serum GGT levels. The underlying causes of death were classified by 10th Revision of the International Classification of Diseases codes. During the median follow-up period of 8.3 years, 460,699 deaths were identified. All-cause mortality increased as serum GGT levels became higher (hazard ratio [HR], 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05, 1.04-1.05 in the middle tertile, and 1.33, 1.32-1.34 in the high tertile) compared to the low tertile of serum GGT levels. Similar trends were observed for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (HR, 95% CI 1.07, 1.05-1.09 in the middle tertile, 1.29, 1.26-1.31 in the high tertile), cancer (HR, 95% CI 1.08, 1.07-1.10 in the middle tertile, 1.38, 1.36-1.39 in the high tertile), respiratory disease (HR, 95% CI 1.10, 1.08-1.13 in the middle tertile, 1.39, 1.35-1.43 in the high tertile), and liver disease mortality (HR, 95% CI 1.74, 1.66-1.83 in the middle tertile, 6.73, 6.46-7.01 in the high tertile). Regardless of smoking, alcohol consumption and history of previous CVD and cancer, a higher serum GGT levels were associated with a higher risk of mortality. Serum GGT levels may be useful for risk assessment of all-cause and disease-specific mortality in general population.

Evaluation of Epigenetic Age Acceleration Scores and Their Associations with CVD-Related Phenotypes in a Population Cohort

We evaluated associations between nine epigenetic age acceleration (EAA) scores and 18 cardiometabolic phenotypes using an Eastern European ageing population cohort richly annotated for a diverse set of phenotypes (subsample, n = 306; aged 45-69 years). This was implemented by splitting the data into groups with positive and negative EAAs. We observed strong association between all EAA scores and sex, suggesting that any analysis of EAAs should be adjusted by sex. We found that some sex-adjusted EAA scores were significantly associated with several phenotypes such as blood levels of gamma-glutamyl transferase and low-density lipoprotein, smoking status, annual alcohol consumption, multiple carotid plaques, and incident coronary heart disease status (not necessarily the same phenotypes for different EAAs). We demonstrated that even after adjusting EAAs for sex, EAA-phenotype associations remain sex-specific, which should be taken into account in any downstream analysis involving EAAs. The obtained results suggest that in some EAA-phenotype associations, negative EAA scores (i.e., epigenetic age below chronological age) indicated more harmful phenotype values, which is counterintuitive. Among all considered epigenetic clocks, GrimAge was significantly associated with more phenotypes than any other EA scores in this Russian sample.

Evaluation of Relationship between Serum Liver Enzymes and Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study Based on Data from Rafsanjan Cohort Study

Background. Hypertension as a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases is among the leading causes of death worldwide. The relationship between elevated serum levels of liver enzymes and hypertension has been reported in limited studies, and to the best of our knowledge, there are no previous reports in the literature on this issue in the southeast of Iran. Our investigation aimed at evaluating the relation between ALT, AST, GGT, and ALP with hypertension in the Rafsanjan Cohort Study, a city in Kerman Province, Iran. Methods. In this cross-sectional study, we used data obtained from the Rafsanjan Cohort Study (RCS), as a part of the prospective epidemiological research studies in Iran (PERSIAN). The association of the liver enzymes levels with hypertension was investigated using the multivariable logistic regression models. Results. Among 9930 participants, the mean age (±SD) was 49.94 (±9.56) years, and 46.56% were men. The odds of abnormal blood pressure significantly increased along with the higher levels of ALT, GGT, and ALP which remained significant only for ALP after adjustment for all confounding variables in both males and females (OR in males: 1.36, 95% CI = 1.09–1.69, OR in females: 1.25, 95% CI = 1.01–1.54). In subjects with normal levels of ALT, AST, GGT, and ALP, dose-response increases were observed for abnormal blood pressure in both genders. Finally, we found that, among liver enzymes, only elevated ALP was significantly correlated with the odds of stage 1 hypertension and stage 2 hypertension for both genders. Conclusions. In subjects with normal levels of ALT, AST, GGT, and ALP, dose-response increases were observed for abnormal blood pressure in both genders. Increased serum ALP activity was positively associated with increased odds of hypertension in males and females. Therefore, increased ALP could be an early indicator of hypertension.

Association between serum liver enzymes and hypertension: a cross-sectional study in Bangladeshi adults

BACKGROUND

Hypertension is a major contributing factor to cardiovascular disease and is a leading cause of death in the world. The association between hepatic enzymes and hypertension has been reported in limited studies and the findings are inconsistent; data from Bangladeshi adults are not available yet. This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of elevated liver enzymes and evaluate the association of elevated liver enzymes with hypertension in Bangladeshi adults.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 302 blood samples were collected from adult participants and analyzed the serum concentrations of alanine and aspartate aminotransferase (ALT, AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) and other markers related to hypertension. Hypertension was defined as resting SBP ≥ 140 mmHg and/or DBP ≥ 90 mmHg. Associations between elevated liver enzymes and hypertension were evaluated by multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

The mean concentrations of serum ALT, AST and GGT were significantly higher in the hypertensive group compared to the normotensive group (p < 0.01, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). Overall, 49.2% of subjects in the hypertensive group and 38.1% of individuals in the normotensive group had at least one or more elevated liver enzymes. The prevalence of elevated ALT, AST, and GGT was significantly higher among participants in the hypertensive group compared to the normotensive group (p < 0.01, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). An increasing trend for elevated liver enzymes was observed with increasing blood pressure. Serum ALT and GGT showed an independent relationship with hypertension.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of elevated liver enzymes was higher in hypertensive individuals. Increased serum ALT and GGT activities were positively associated with hypertension in Bangladeshi adults.

Sexual dimorphism in glutathione metabolism and glutathione-dependent responses

Glutathione is the most abundant intracellular low molecular weight thiol in cells and tissues, and plays an essential role in numerous cellular processes, including antioxidant defenses, the regulation of protein function, protein localization and stability, DNA synthesis, gene expression, cell proliferation, and cell signaling. Sexual dimorphisms in glutathione biology, metabolism and glutathione-dependent signaling have been reported for a broad range of biological processes, spanning the human lifespan from early development to aging. Sex-depended differences with regard to glutathione and its biology have also been reported for a number of human pathologies and diseases such as neurodegeneration, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders. Here we review the latest literature in this field and discuss the potential impact of these sexual dimorphisms in glutathione biology on human health and diseases.

Sex-Gender Variable: Methodological Recommendations for Increasing Scientific Value of Clinical Studies

There is a clear sex-gender gap in the prevention and occurrence of diseases, and in the outcomes and treatments, which is relevant to women in the majority of cases. Attitudes concerning the enrollment of women in randomized clinical trials have changed over recent years. Despite this change, a gap still exists. This gap is linked to biological factors (sex) and psycho-social, cultural, and environmental factors (gender). These multidimensional, entangled, and interactive factors may influence the pharmacological response. Despite the fact that regulatory authorities recognize the importance of sex and gender, there is a paucity of research focusing on the racial/ethnic, socio-economic, psycho-social, and environmental factors that perpetuate disparities. Research and clinical practice must incorporate all of these factors to arrive at an intersectional and system-scenario perspective. We advocate for scientifically rigorous evaluations of the interplay between sex and gender as key factors in performing clinical trials, which are more adherent to real-life. This review proposes a set of 12 rules to improve clinical research for integrating sex-gender into clinical trials.

Serum gamma-glutamyl transferase is a predictor of mortality in patients with acute myocardial infarction

Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) is involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and has been associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with ischemic heart disease. However, the association between GGT and long-term mortality has not been studied in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI).A total of 2239 AMI patients for whom serum GGT values were available and who underwent percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) were enrolled in the COREA-AMI (CardiOvascular Risk and idEntificAtion of potential high-risk population in Korean patients with AMI) registry. Patients with acute liver injury were excluded. Patients were classified into 2 groups according to normal (n = 1983) or elevated (n = 256) levels of serum GGT. The primary clinical outcome was all-cause mortality. The secondary outcome was cardiac death and recurrent non-fatal myocardial infarction (MI).The median follow-up period was 3.7 years, and both groups had similar characteristics. Patients with elevated GGT had significantly higher all-cause mortality compared to patients with normal GGT (21.9% vs. 14.4%, P = .001). The multivariate Cox proportional hazards model showed that elevated serum GGT level was independently correlated with mortality (hazard ratio 2.12[1.44-3.11]; P < .001). Although elevated serum GGT was independently associated with long-term mortality after 30 days after PCI, there was no association within 30 days after PCI. Elevated GGT was also associated with death of cardiac causes with statistical significance. In the subgroup analysis, stronger associations were observed in the young and female patients and in patients who had ST-segment elevation MI and preserved left ventricular ejection fraction at the first echocardiography after the indexed PCI.Elevated serum GGT is an independent predictor of long-term mortality in AMI patients.

Association of serum bilirubin level with lung function decline: a Korean community-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Bilirubin has been reported to be associated with respiratory diseases due to its antioxidant action. We aimed to evaluate the relationship between serum bilirubin concentration and annual lung function decline in the Korean general population.

METHODS

The study included 7986 subjects aged 40-69 years from the Ansung-Ansan cohort database I (2001-2002)-III (2005-2006). We analyzed the relationships between serum bilirubin level and forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁), forced vital capacity (FVC), FEV₁/FVC, and mean forced expiratory flow between 25 and 75% of FVC (FEF_25-75%) at baseline, as well as the annual average changes in these lung parameters.

RESULTS

The FEV₁, FVC, and FEF_25-75% were significantly associated with serum bilirubin levels after adjustment for age, sex, body mass index (BMI), and smoking status (all P < 0.001). When stratified according to smoking status, these relationships were significant in never-smokers. Additionally, serum bilirubin level was negatively associated with the annual decline in FEV₁ and FVC, and positively associated with the annual decline in FEV₁/FVC after adjustment for age, sex, BMI, baseline lung function, and smoking status (all P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

We found significant associations of serum bilirubin levels with FEV₁, FVC, and FEF_25-75% in the general population, especially in never-smokers. Moreover, serum bilirubin levels were related with the annual decline in FEV₁, FVC, and FEV₁/FVC ratio.

The Association between Parameters of Socioeconomic Status and Hypertension in Korea: the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study

We investigated the association between socioeconomic status and hypertension in Korea, a country that has experienced a dynamic socioeconomic transition. We analyzed participants of a prospective cohort study-the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study-enrolled between 2001 and 2003. We recruited 7,089 subjects who underwent a 4-year follow up till 2007. Education and income levels, which are important parameters for socioeconomic status, were stratified into 4 groups. Education level was defined as short (≤ 6 years), mid-short (7-9 years), mid-long (10-12 years), and long (≥ 12 years). Monthly income level was stratified as low (< 500,000 KRW), mid-low (500,000-1,499,999 KRW), mid-high (1,500,000-2,999,999 KRW) or high (≥ 3,000,000 KRW). At baseline, 2,805 subjects (39.5%) were diagnosed with hypertension. Education and income levels were inversely associated with the prevalence and incidence of hypertension (P < 0.001). In multivariate analysis, a shorter duration of education was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of hypertension (P < 0.001), but income level was not (P = 0.305). During the follow-up, 605 subjects (14.2%) were newly diagnosed with hypertension. In multivariate adjusted analysis, the hazard ratios (95% confidence interval) for incident hypertension across the longer education groups were 0.749 (0.544-1.032), 0.639 (0.462-0.884), and 0.583 (0.387-0.879), compared with the shortest education group. There was no significant association between incident hypertension and income across higher income groups: 0.988 (0.714-1.366), 0.780 (0.542-1.121), and 0.693 (0.454-1.056), compared with the lowest income group. In conclusion, education and income levels are associated with the prevalence and incidence of hypertension, but only education is an independent prognostic factor in Korea.

Serum Gamma-Glutamyltransferase Levels are Associated With Concomitant Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Korean Hypertensive Patients: A Nationwide Population-Based Study

Previous studies suggested that serum gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) levels were associated with the prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors including hypertension, diabetes mellitus (DM), and metabolic syndrome (MetS) in the general population. We aimed to investigate the relationship between serum GGT levels and CVD risk factors in Korean hypertensive patients. This cross-sectional study was based on data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2011 to 2012. The analysis included 1541 hypertensive participants. Study participants were divided into groups according to tertiles of serum GGT with cutoff points of 20 and 35 U/L. Serum GGT levels were positively associated with the components of MetS (P value < 0.05, except for systolic blood pressure and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol). After adjusting for possible confounders, serum GGT levels were associated with an increased risk of MetS, high waist circumference, high triglyceride level, fasting plasma glucose, DM, and the urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (P = 0.001). In hypertensive patients, serum GGT levels are positively associated with major cardiovascular risk factors such as MetS, DM, and urinary albumin excretion.