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Molagoda IMN, Sanjaya SS, Lee KT, Choi YH, Lee JH, Lee MH, Kang CH, Lee CM, Kim GY. Derrone Targeting the TGF Type 1 Receptor Kinase Improves Bleomycin-Mediated Pulmonary Fibrosis through Inhibition of Smad Signaling Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087265. [PMID: 37108428 PMCID: PMC10138718 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) has a strong impact on the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis. Therefore, in this study, we investigated whether derrone promotes anti-fibrotic effects on TGF-β1-stimulated MRC-5 lung fibroblast cells and bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis. Long-term treatment with high concentrations of derrone increased the cytotoxicity of MRC-5 cells; however, substantial cell death was not observed at low concentrations of derrone (below 0.05 μg/mL) during a three-day treatment. In addition, derrone significantly decreased the expressions of TGF-β1, fibronectin, elastin, and collagen1α1, and these decreases were accompanied by downregulation of α-SMA expression in TGF-β1-stimulated MRC-5 cells. Severe fibrotic histopathological changes in infiltration, alveolar congestion, and alveolar wall thickness were observed in bleomycin-treated mice; however, derrone supplementation significantly reduced these histological deformations. In addition, intratracheal administration of bleomycin resulted in lung collagen accumulation and high expression of α-SMA and fibrotic genes-including TGF-β1, fibronectin, elastin, and collagen1α1-in the lungs. However, fibrotic severity in intranasal derrone-administrated mice was significantly less than that of bleomycin-administered mice. Molecular docking predicted that derrone potently fits into the ATP-binding pocket of the TGF-β receptor type 1 kinase domain with stronger binding scores than ATP. Additionally, derrone inhibited TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocations of Smad2/3. Overall, derrone significantly attenuated TGF-β1-stimulated lung inflammation in vitro and bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis in a murine model, indicating that derrone may be a promising candidate for preventing pulmonary fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilandarage Menu Neelaka Molagoda
- Department of Marine Life Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bioprocess Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale 50300, Sri Lanka
| | | | - Kyoung Tae Lee
- Forest Bioresources Department, Forest Microbiology Division, National Institute of Forest Science, Suwon 16631, Republic of Korea
| | - Yung Hyun Choi
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Korean Medicine, Dongeui University, Busan 47227, Republic of Korea
| | - Joyce H Lee
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, 185 Meeting St., Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Mi-Hwa Lee
- Nakdonggang National Institute of Biological Resources, Sangju 37242, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Hee Kang
- Nakdonggang National Institute of Biological Resources, Sangju 37242, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Min Lee
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, 185 Meeting St., Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Gi-Young Kim
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, 185 Meeting St., Providence, RI 02912, USA
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Isotretinoin and Thalidomide Down-Regulate c-MYC Gene Expression and Modify Proteins Associated with Cancer in Hepatic Cells. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26195742. [PMID: 34641286 PMCID: PMC8510077 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26195742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common form of liver cancer. The number of cases is increasing and the trend for the next few years is not encouraging. HCC is usually detected in the advanced stages of the disease, and pharmacological therapies are not entirely effective. For this reason, it is necessary to search for new therapeutic options. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of the drugs isotretinoin and thalidomide on c-MYC expression and cancer-related proteins in an HCC cellular model. The expression of c-MYC was measured using RT-qPCR and western blot assays. In addition, luciferase activity assays were performed for the c-MYC promoters P1 and P2 using recombinant plasmids. Dose-response-time analyses were performed for isotretinoin or thalidomide in cells transfected with the c-MYC promoters. Finally, a proteome profile analysis of cells exposed to these two drugs was performed and the results were validated by western blot. We demonstrated that in HepG2 cells, isotretinoin and thalidomide reduced c-MYC mRNA expression levels, but this decrease in expression was linked to the regulation of P1 and P1-P2 c-MYC promoter activity in isotretinoin only. Thalidomide did not exert any effect on c-MYC promoters. Also, isotretinoin and thalidomide were capable of inducing and repressing proteins associated with cancer. In conclusion, isotretinoin and thalidomide down-regulate c-MYC mRNA expression and this is partially due to P1 or P2 promoter activity, suggesting that these drugs could be promising options for modulating the expression of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in HCC.
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Tamalunas A, Sauckel C, Ciotkowska A, Rutz B, Wang R, Huang R, Li B, Stief CG, Gratzke C, Hennenberg M. Lenalidomide and pomalidomide inhibit growth of prostate stromal cells and human prostate smooth muscle contraction. Life Sci 2021; 281:119771. [PMID: 34186051 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2021.119771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Medical treatment for lower urinary tract symptoms secondary to benign prostatic hyperplasia is characterized by an unfavorable balance between limited efficacy and pronounced side effects. We recently reported, that thalidomide reduces prostate smooth muscle contraction and inhibits cell growth. Like thalidomide, its analogs lenalidomide and pomalidomide are also in clinical use. Therefore, we investigated the effects of lenalidomide and pomalidomide on human prostate smooth muscle contraction, cytoskeletal organization, and growth-related functions in stromal cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS Proliferation was assessed by EdU assay and colony formation, cytoskeletal organization by phalloidin staining, cell viability by CCK8, and apoptosis and cell death by flow cytometry in cultured prostate stromal cells (WPMY-1). Contractions of human prostate tissues from radical prostatectomy were induced by methoxamine, noradrenaline, phenylephrine, endothelin-1, U46619, or electric field stimulation (EFS) in an organ bath. KEY FINDINGS Proliferation of WPMY-1 cells was significantly reduced by lenalidomide (5-200 μM) and pomalidomide (2.5-5 μM). In parallel, organization of actin filaments collapsed after treatment with lenalidomide and pomalidomide. Lenalidomide and pomalidomide inhibited both adrenergic contractions and non-adrenergic contractions as well as neurogenic contractions induced by EFS. Neither reduction in viability, nor increase in cell death or apoptosis was observed in WPMY-1 cells. SIGNIFICANCE Thalidomide-derivatives impair growth of human prostate stromal cells, without showing a decrease in cell viability and, in parallel, inhibit adrenergic, neurogenic, and non-adrenergic contractions by breakdown of the actin cytoskeleton. Urodynamic effects in vivo appear possible.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cora Sauckel
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Anna Ciotkowska
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Beata Rutz
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Ruixiao Wang
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Ru Huang
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bingsheng Li
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Christian G Stief
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Martin Hennenberg
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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Tamalunas A, Sauckel C, Ciotkowska A, Rutz B, Wang R, Huang R, Li B, Stief CG, Gratzke C, Hennenberg M. Inhibition of human prostate stromal cell growth and smooth muscle contraction by thalidomide: A novel remedy in LUTS? Prostate 2021; 81:377-389. [PMID: 33687083 DOI: 10.1002/pros.24114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Medical treatment in benign prostatic hyperplasia targets prostate size to prevent disease progression, complications, and surgery, and prostate smooth muscle tone for rapid relief of lower urinary tract symptoms. Combination therapies are still required to target both at once. However, current medications are insufficient, due to an unfavorable balance between side effects and efficacy. The limited efficacy of α1 -blockers may be due to nonadrenergic mediators like endothelin-1 and thromboxane A2 (TXA2 ), which keep up prostate smooth muscle contraction even in the presence of α1 -blockers. Consequently, future options with higher efficacy need to target α1 -adrenergic and nonadrenergic contractions as well as stromal cell growth at once. Thalidomide has been approved as an oral medication for various diseases, including the treatment of prostate cancer. Therefore, we investigated the effect of thalidomide on cellular functions of prostate stromal cells and human prostate smooth muscle contraction. METHODS Cytoskeletal organization was visualized by phalloidin staining, cell growth was assessed by 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine assay, cell viability by cell counting kit-8, and apoptosis and cell death by flow cytometry in cultured prostate stromal cells (WPMY-1). Contractions of human prostate tissues from radical prostatectomy were studied in an organ bath, where they were induced by the α1 -adrenoceptor agonists methoxamine, noradrenaline, phenylephrine, and the nonadrenergic agonists endothelin-1, TXA2 analog U46619, or electric field stimulation (EFS). RESULTS Thalidomide significantly reduced the proliferation of WPMY-1 cells, which was time- and concentration-dependent (10-300 µM). In parallel, organization of actin filaments collapsed after treatment with thalidomide. Thalidomide (30-100 µM) inhibited noradrenaline-, phenylephrine-, and methoxamine-induced contractions, as well as nonadrenergic contractions induced by endothelin-1 and U46619, and neurogenic contractions induced by EFS. No reduction in viability and no increases in apoptosis or in cell death were observed in WPMY-1 cells. CONCLUSIONS Thalidomide impairs the growth of human prostate stromal cells, without showing a decrease in cell viability. In parallel, thalidomide inhibits adrenergic, neurogenic, and nonadrenergic contractions. This may be explained by a breakdown of the actin cytoskeleton. In vivo, urodynamic effects of thalidomide appear possible and may even exceed those of α1 -blockers or combination therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cora Sauckel
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Anna Ciotkowska
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Beata Rutz
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Ruixiao Wang
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Ru Huang
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bingsheng Li
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Christian G Stief
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Martin Hennenberg
- Department of Urology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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Babapoor-Farrokhran S, Tarighati Rasekhi R, Gill D, Alzubi J, Mainigi SK. How transforming growth factor contributes to atrial fibrillation? Life Sci 2020; 266:118823. [PMID: 33309721 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common clinically significant arrhythmia. There are four fundamental pathophysiological mechanisms of AF including: electrical remodeling, structural remodeling, autonomic nervous system changes, and Ca2+ handling abnormalities. The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily are cytokines that have the ability to regulate numerous cell functions including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and production of extracellular matrix. During the last decade numerous studies have demonstrated that TGF-β affects the architecture of the heart. TGF-β1 has been shown to be involved in the development and propagation of atrial fibrillation (AF). Investigators have studied TGF-β signaling in AF with the aim of discovering potential therapeutic agents. In this review we discuss the role of TGF-β in atrial fibrillation and specifically its role in atrial structural and electrical remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Roozbeh Tarighati Rasekhi
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Deanna Gill
- Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jafar Alzubi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Einstein Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19141, USA
| | - Sumeet K Mainigi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Einstein Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19141, USA; Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
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Bian C, Qin WJ, Zhang CY, Zou GL, Zhu YZ, Chen J, Zhao R, Wang YY, Zhe H. Thalidomide (THD) alleviates radiation induced lung fibrosis (RILF) via down-regulation of TGF-β/Smad3 signaling pathway in an Nrf2-dependent manner. Free Radic Biol Med 2018; 129:446-453. [PMID: 30339882 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.10.423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Radiation-induced lung fibrosis (RILF) is a complication of radiotherapy in thoracic cancer patients. Thalidomide (THD) has a therapeutic effect on fibrotic and inflammatory disorders. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the therapeutic effect of THD on RILF in mice and better understand the underlying regulatory mechanisms of the therapeutic effect. We found that THD mitigated the fibrosis caused by irradiation in mice. The action of THD on RILF was related to the elevation of low levels reactive oxygen species (ROS), which inhibited the transforming growth factor‑β (TGF‑β)/Smad3 signaling pathway through activation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2). Analysis of the therapeutic effect of THD using Nrf2-/- mouse model confirmed the role of Nrf2 in vivo. In addition, no radioprotective effect of THD on thoracic cancer cell lines was observed. In conclusion, these data showed that THD attenuated RILF in mice, which was mediated by Nrf2-dependent down-regulation of the TGF-β/Smad3 pathway, suggesting THD as a potential novel agent for RILF prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Bian
- Graduate School, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China; Dept. of Radiation Oncology, Inner Mongolia People's Hospital, Hohhot 010017, Inner Mongolia, China
| | - Wen-Jun Qin
- Graduate School, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China
| | - Cui-Ying Zhang
- Dept. of Radiation Oncology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China; Cancer Institute, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China
| | - Guan-Lian Zou
- Graduate School, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China
| | - Yong-Zhao Zhu
- Surgical Laboratory, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China
| | - Juan Chen
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China
| | - Ren Zhao
- Dept. of Radiation Oncology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China; Cancer Institute, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China
| | - Yan-Yang Wang
- Dept. of Radiation Oncology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China; Cancer Institute, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
| | - Hong Zhe
- Dept. of Radiation Oncology, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China; Cancer Institute, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan 750004, Ningxia, China.
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Cervantes-Garcia D, Cuellar-Juarez AG, Borrego-Soto G, Rojas-Martinez A, Aldaba-Muruato LR, Salinas E, Ventura-Juarez J, Muñoz-Ortega MH. Adenoviral‑bone morphogenetic protein‑7 and/or doxazosin therapies promote the reversion of fibrosis/cirrhosis in a cirrhotic hamster model. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:9431-9440. [PMID: 29039539 PMCID: PMC5780000 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.7785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver fibrosis occurs in the presence of continuous insults, including toxic or biological agents. Novel treatments must focus on ceasing the progression of cellular damage, promoting the regeneration of the parenchyma and inhibition of the fibrotic process. The present study analyzed the effect of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)-7 gene therapy with or without co-treatment with doxazosin in a model of liver cirrhosis in hamsters. The serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and albumin levels were analyzed spectrophotometrically. Tissue hepatic samples were analyzed by hematoxylin and eosin for parenchymal structure and Sirius red for collagen fiber content. BMP-7 and α-smooth muscle actin (SMA)-positive cells were detected by immunohistochemistry. BMP-7 and collagen type I content in hepatic tissue were analyzed by western blotting, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-2 and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-13 expression levels were detected by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The present study detected a significant reduction of collagen type I deposits in the group treated with adenoviral-transduction with BMP-7 and doxazosin. In animals with BMP-7 and doxazosin therapy, α-SMA-positive cells were 31.7 and 29% significantly decreased compared with animals with placebo, respectively. Adenoviral-BMP-7 transduction and/or doxazosin treatments actively induced decrement in type I collagen deposition via increased MMP-13 and reduced TIMP-2 expression. In conclusion, the adenovirus-BMP-7 gene therapy and the doxazosin therapy are potential candidates for the diminution of fibrosis in the liver, although combination of both therapies does not improve the individual anti-fibrotic effect once cirrhosis is established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Cervantes-Garcia
- Department of Microbiology, Basic Sciences Center, Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, 20131 Aguascalientes, Mexico
| | | | - Gissela Borrego-Soto
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monterrey, 64710 Nuevo Leon, Mexico
| | - Augusto Rojas-Martinez
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monterrey, 64710 Nuevo Leon, Mexico
| | - Liseth Rubi Aldaba-Muruato
- Department of Morphology, Basic Sciences Center, Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, 20131 Aguascalientes, Mexico
| | - Eva Salinas
- Department of Microbiology, Basic Sciences Center, Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, 20131 Aguascalientes, Mexico
| | - Javier Ventura-Juarez
- Department of Morphology, Basic Sciences Center, Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, 20131 Aguascalientes, Mexico
| | - Martin Humberto Muñoz-Ortega
- Department of Chemistry, Basic Sciences Center, Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, 20131 Aguascalientes, Mexico
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The fibrolytic potentials of vitamin D and thymoquinone remedial therapies: insights from liver fibrosis established by CCl4 in rats. J Transl Med 2016; 14:281. [PMID: 27681697 PMCID: PMC5041560 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-016-1040-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Vitamin D (VitD) and thymoquinone (TQ) are nutraceutical agents with well-known immunomodulatory and hepatoprotective properties. This study measured whether VitD and TQ, individually or combined, could have direct fibrolytic activities and/or enhanced performance during remedial treatment of liver fibrosis established by CCl4 in rats. Methods Eighty five male Wistar rats were used as 10 negative controls (NC) and the remainders were distributed equally into 5 groups: short (S-PC) and long (L-PC) positive controls, TQ, VitD and VitD/TQ groups. CCl4 was injected for 7 weeks followed by a week of no intervention. TQ and/or VitD were given orally (3 days/week) from week 9 and euthanasia was at week 17 for all groups except the S-PC was at week 9. Following histopathological and digital image analyses, TGF-β1, IL-6, IL-10, IL-22 and MMP-9 were measured by ELISA in liver homogenates while the corresponding cytokine receptors were measured by immunohistochemistry. The mRNA expressions of all molecules were measured by quantitative RT-PCR. Results Fibrosis was evident in both PC-groups and was significantly more advanced in the L-PC than S-PC, reaching to cirrhosis. The concentrations of TGF-β1, IL-6, IL-22 and their receptors were significantly higher (P < 0.05) simultaneously with significantly lower (P < 0.05) concentrations of MMP-9, IL-10 and IL-10 receptors in the S-PC and L-PC than the NC-group. TQ and VitD monotherapies showed significantly less fibrosis than L-PC but were similar to S-PC. Both remedial monotherapies also resulted in significant decreases of TGF-β1, IL-6, IL-22 and their receptors together with significant increases of MMP-9 and IL-10 system compared with S-PC and L-PC groups. Interestingly, dual therapy resulted in the most significant improvement in fibrosis score and index, yet was significantly higher (P < 0.05) than the NC-group, and concurred with the utmost significant restorations of all candidate genes and proteins. Conclusions VitD and TQ exhibited comparable anti-fibrogenic effects and modulated several pro- and anti-fibrotic mediators. Additionally, VitD/TQ dual therapy alleviated the previously established liver fibrosis simultaneously with significantly enhanced actions at the molecular level. More studies are required to explorer the therapeutic value of TQ and VitD against liver fibrosis in human. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12967-016-1040-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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