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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout D, Calistri P, Canali E, Drewe JA, Garin‐Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Smith CG, Herskin M, Michel V, Miranda Chueca MA, Padalino B, Roberts H, Spoolder H, Ståhl K, Velarde A, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Arzul I, Dharmaveer S, Olesen NJ, Schiøtt M, Sindre H, Stone D, Vendramin N, Antoniou S, Dhollander S, Karagianni AE, Kero LL, Gnocchi M, Aznar I, Barizzone F, Munoz Guajardo IP, Roberts H. Species which may act as vectors or reservoirs of diseases covered by the Animal Health Law: Listed pathogens of molluscs. EFSA J 2023; 21:e08173. [PMID: 37533748 PMCID: PMC10392592 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.8173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Vector or reservoir species of five mollusc diseases listed in the Animal Health Law were identified, based on evidence generated through an extensive literature review, to support a possible updating of Regulation (EU) 2018/1882. Mollusc species on or in which Mikrocytos mackini, Perkinsus marinus, Bonamia exitiosa, Bonamia ostreae and Marteilia refringens were detected, in the field or during experiments, were classified as reservoir species with different levels of certainty depending on the diagnostic tests used. Where experimental evidence indicated transmission of the pathogen from a studied species to another known susceptible species, this studied species was classified as a vector species. Although the quantification of the risk of spread of the pathogens by the vectors or reservoir species was not part of the terms of reference, such risks do exist for the vector species, since transmission from infected vector species to susceptible species was proven. Where evidence for transmission from infected molluscs was not found, these were defined as reservoir. Nonetheless, the risk of the spread of the pathogens from infected reservoir species cannot be excluded. Evidence identifying conditions that may prevent transmission by vectors or reservoir mollusc species during transport was collected from scientific literature. It was concluded that it is very likely to almost certain (90-100%) that M. mackini, P. marinus, B. exitiosa B. ostreae and M. refringens will remain infective at any possible transport condition. Therefore, vector or reservoir species that may have been exposed to these pathogens in an affected area in the wild or at aquaculture establishments or through contaminated water supply can possibly transmit these pathogens. For transmission of M. refringens, the presence of an intermediate host, a copepod, is necessary.
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Lassudrie M, Hégaret H, Wikfors GH, da Silva PM. Effects of marine harmful algal blooms on bivalve cellular immunity and infectious diseases: A review. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 108:103660. [PMID: 32145294 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Bivalves were long thought to be "symptomless carriers" of marine microalgal toxins to human seafood consumers. In the past three decades, science has come to recognize that harmful algae and their toxins can be harmful to grazers, including bivalves. Indeed, studies have shown conclusively that some microalgal toxins function as active grazing deterrents. When responding to marine Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) events, bivalves can reject toxic cells to minimize toxin and bioactive extracellular compound (BEC) exposure, or ingest and digest cells, incorporating nutritional components and toxins. Several studies have reported modulation of bivalve hemocyte variables in response to HAB exposure. Hemocytes are specialized cells involved in many functions in bivalves, particularly in immunological defense mechanisms. Hemocytes protect tissues by engulfing or encapsulating living pathogens and repair tissue damage caused by injury, poisoning, and infections through inflammatory processes. The effects of HAB exposure observed on bivalve cellular immune variables have raised the question of possible effects on susceptibility to infectious disease. As science has described a previously unrecognized diversity in microalgal bioactive substances, and also found a growing list of infectious diseases in bivalves, episodic reports of interactions between harmful algae and disease in bivalves have been published. Only recently, studies directed to understand the physiological and metabolic bases of these interactions have been undertaken. This review compiles evidence from studies of harmful algal effects upon bivalve shellfish that establishes a framework for recent efforts to understand how harmful algae can alter infectious disease, and particularly the fundamental role of cellular immunity, in modulating these interactions. Experimental studies reviewed here indicate that HABs can modulate bivalve-pathogen interactions in various ways, either by increasing bivalve susceptibility to disease or conversely by lessening infection proliferation or transmission. Alteration of immune defense and global physiological distress caused by HAB exposure have been the most frequent reasons identified for these effects on disease. Only few studies, however, have addressed these effects so far and a general pattern cannot be established. Other mechanisms are likely involved but are under-studied thus far and will need more attention in the future. In particular, the inhibition of bivalve filtration by HABs and direct interaction between HABs and infectious agents in the seawater likely interfere with pathogen transmission. The study of these interactions in the field and at the population level also are needed to establish the ecological and economical significance of the effects of HABs upon bivalve diseases. A more thorough understanding of these interactions will assist in development of more effective management of bivalve shellfisheries and aquaculture in oceans subjected to increasing HAB and disease pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hélène Hégaret
- CNRS, Univ Brest, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, F-29280, Plouzané, France
| | - Gary H Wikfors
- NOAA Fisheries Service, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Milford, CT, 0640, USA
| | - Patricia Mirella da Silva
- Laboratory of Immunology and Pathology of Invertebrates, Department of Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB), Paraíba, Brazil
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Gillies CL, Castine SA, Alleway HK, Crawford C, Fitzsimons JA, Hancock B, Koch P, McAfee D, McLeod IM, zu Ermgassen PS. Conservation status of the Oyster Reef Ecosystem of Southern and Eastern Australia. Glob Ecol Conserv 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e00988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Gribben PE, Bishop MJ, O’Connor WA, Bradley DJ, Hughes AR. Intraspecific diversity in prey body size influences survivorship by conferring resistance to predation. Ecosphere 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Paul E. Gribben
- Centre for Marine Science and Innovation School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences University of New South Wales Sydney New South Wales 2052 Australia
- Sydney Institute of Marine Science 19 Chowder Bay Road Mosman New South Wales 2088 Australia
| | - Melanie J. Bishop
- Department of Biological Sciences Macquarie University Sydney New South Wales 2109 Australia
| | - Wayne A. O’Connor
- NSW Department of Primary Industries Nelson Bay New South Wales 2315 Australia
| | - Daniel J. Bradley
- School of Life Sciences University of Technology Sydney New South Wales 2007 Australia
| | - A. Randall Hughes
- Northeastern University Marine Science Centre 430 Nahant Raod Nahant Massachusetts 01908 USA
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King WL, Jenkins C, Seymour JR, Labbate M. Oyster disease in a changing environment: Decrypting the link between pathogen, microbiome and environment. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 143:124-140. [PMID: 30482397 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Revised: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Shifting environmental conditions are known to be important triggers of oyster diseases. The mechanism(s) behind these synergistic effects (interplay between host, environment and pathogen/s) are often not clear, although there is evidence that shifts in environmental conditions can affect oyster immunity, and pathogen growth and virulence. However, the impact of shifting environmental parameters on the oyster microbiome and how this affects oyster health and susceptibility to infectious pathogens remains understudied. In this review, we summarise the major diseases afflicting oysters with a focus on the role of environmental factors that can catalyse or amplify disease outbreaks. We also consider the potential role of the oyster microbiome in buffering or augmenting oyster disease outbreaks and suggest that a deeper understanding of the oyster microbiome, its links to the environment and its effect on oyster health and disease susceptibility, is required to develop new frameworks for the prevention and management of oyster diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- William L King
- The School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia; Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Cheryl Jenkins
- Elizabeth Macarthur Institute, New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Menangle, NSW, Australia
| | - Justin R Seymour
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Maurizio Labbate
- The School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Goncalves P, Thompson EL, Raftos DA. Contrasting impacts of ocean acidification and warming on the molecular responses of CO 2-resilient oysters. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:431. [PMID: 28578697 PMCID: PMC5457604 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-3818-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study characterises the molecular processes altered by both elevated CO2 and increasing temperature in oysters. Differences in resilience of marine organisms against the environmental stressors associated with climate change will have significant implications for the sustainability of coastal ecosystems worldwide. Some evidence suggests that climate change resilience can differ between populations within a species. B2 oysters represent a unique genetic resource because of their capacity to better withstand the impacts of elevated CO2 at the physiological level, compared to non-selected oysters from the same species (Saccostrea glomerata). Here, we used proteomic and transcriptomic analysis of gill tissue to evaluate whether the differential response of B2 oysters to elevated CO2 also extends to increased temperature. RESULTS Substantial and distinctive effects on protein concentrations and gene expression were evident among B2 oysters responding to elevated CO2 or elevated temperature. The combination of both stressors also altered oyster gill proteomes and gene expression. However, the impacts of elevated CO2 and temperature were not additive or synergistic, and may be antagonistic. CONCLUSIONS The data suggest that the simultaneous exposure of CO2-resilient oysters to near-future projected ocean pH and temperature results in complex changes in molecular processes in order to prevent stress-induced cellular damage. The differential response of B2 oysters to the combined stressors also indicates that the addition of thermal stress may impair the resilience of these oysters to decreased pH. Overall, this study reveals the intracellular mechanisms that might enable marine calcifiers to endure the emergent, adverse seawater conditions resulting from climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Goncalves
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia. .,Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay, Sydney, NSW, 2088, Australia.
| | - Emma L Thompson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.,Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay, Sydney, NSW, 2088, Australia.,Present Address: School of Life and Environmental Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
| | - David A Raftos
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.,Sydney Institute of Marine Science, Chowder Bay, Sydney, NSW, 2088, Australia
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Lane HS, Webb SC, Duncan J. Bonamia ostreae in the New Zealand oyster Ostrea chilensis: a new host and geographic record for this haplosporidian parasite. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2016; 118:55-63. [PMID: 26865235 DOI: 10.3354/dao02960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Previous reports of the haplosporidian parasite Bonamia ostreae have been restricted to the Northern Hemisphere, including Europe, and both eastern and western North America. This species is reported for the first time in New Zealand infecting the flat oyster Ostrea chilensis. Histological examination of 149 adult oysters identified 119 (79.9%) infected with Bonamia microcells. Bonamia generic PCR of several oysters followed by DNA sequencing of a 300 bp portion of the 18S rDNA gene produced a 100% match with that of B. ostreae. All DNA-sequenced products also produced a B. ostreae PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) profile. Bonamia species-specific PCRs further detected single infections of B. exitiosa (2.7%), B. ostreae (40.3%), and concurrent infections (53.7%) with these 2 Bonamia species identifying overall a Bonamia prevalence of 96.6%. Detailed histological inspection revealed 2 microcell types. An infection identified by PCR as B. ostreae histologically presented small microcells (mean ± SE diameter = 1.28 ± 0.16 µm, range = 0.9-2 µm, n = 60) commonly with eccentric nuclei. A B. exitiosa infection exhibited larger microcells (mean ± SE diameter = 2.12 ± 0.27 µm, range = 1.5-4 µm, n = 60) with more concentric nuclei. Concurrent infections of both Bonamia species, as identified by PCR, exhibited both types of microcells. DNA barcoding of the B. ostreae-infected oyster host confirmed the identification as O. chilensis. A suite of other parasites that accompany O. chilensis are reported here for the first time in mixed infection with B. ostreae including apicomplexan X (76.5%), Microsporidium rapuae (0.7%) and Bucephalus longicornutus (30.2%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry S Lane
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
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Carnegie RB, Engelsma MY. Microcell parasites of molluscs: introduction to DAO Special 7. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2014; 110:1-4. [PMID: 25060493 DOI: 10.3354/dao02787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
First discovered decades ago, microcell protistan parasites of the genera Bonamia and Mikrocytos remain relevant today for their economic impacts on growing molluscan aquaculture industries and fisheries. Bonamia parasites have received more attention over the years in part because they are more widespread and thus of wider concern, but there has been renewed interest in Mikrocytos recently with the generation of important new findings. Among these has been the surprising observation that Mikrocytos has phylogenetic affinities to the Rhizaria, which includes the haplosporidian protists and the genus Bonamia. This Diseases of Aquatic Organisms Special, emerging from the 5th Meeting of the Microcell Working Group held at the Central Veterinary Institute, Lelystad, the Netherlands, in February 2012, presents new insights into Mikrocytos and Bonamia diversity, distributions, diagnostics, ultrastructure, and infection dynamics, and captures major developments in the field since the last review of these genera in 2004.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan B Carnegie
- Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William & Mary, PO Box 1346, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062, USA
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Engelsma MY, Culloty SC, Lynch SA, Arzul I, Carnegie RB. Bonamia parasites: a rapidly changing perspective on a genus of important mollusc pathogens. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2014; 110:5-23. [PMID: 25060494 DOI: 10.3354/dao02741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Organisms of the genus Bonamia are intracellular protistan parasites of oysters. To date, 4 species have been described (B. ostreae, B. exitiosa, B. perspora and B. roughleyi), although the status of B. roughleyi is controversial. Introduction especially of B. ostreae and B. exitiosa to naïve host populations has been shown to cause mass mortalities in the past and has had a dramatic impact on oyster production. Both B. ostreae and B. exitiosa are pathogens notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) and the European Union. Effective management of the disease caused by these pathogens is complicated by the extensive nature of the oyster production process and limited options for disease control of the cultured stocks in open water. This review focuses on the recent advances in research on genetic relationships between Bonamia isolates, geographical distribution, susceptible host species, diagnostics, epizootiology, host-parasite interactions, and disease resistance and control of this globally important genus of oyster pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Y Engelsma
- Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR (CVI), PO Box 65, 8200 AB, Lelystad, The Netherlands
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