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Apakupakul K, Duncan M, Subramaniam K, Brenn-White M, Palmer JL, Viadanna PHO, Vann JA, Adamovicz L, Waltzek TB, Deem SL. Ranavirus (Frog Virus 3) Infection in Free-Living Three-Toed Box Turtles (Terrapene mexicana triunguis) in Missouri, USA. J Wildl Dis 2024; 60:151-163. [PMID: 37921651 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-23-00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Frog virus 3 (FV3) and related ranaviruses are emerging infectious disease threats to ectothermic vertebrate species globally. Although the impact of these viruses on amphibian health is relatively well studied, less is understood about their effects on reptile health. We report two cases of FV3 infection, 11 mo apart, in three-toed box turtles (Terrapene mexicana triunguis) from a wildlife rehabilitation center. Case 1 had upper respiratory signs upon intake but had no clinical signs at the time of euthanasia 1 mo later. Case 2 presented for vehicular trauma, had ulcerative pharyngitis and glossitis, and died overnight. In case 1, we detected FV3 nucleic acid with qPCR in oral swabs, kidney, liver, spleen, and tongue. In case 2, we detected FV3 in an oral swab, an oral plaque, heart, kidney, lung, liver, spleen, and tongue. We also detected FV3 nucleic acid with in situ hybridization for case 2. For both cases, FV3 was isolated in cell culture and identified with DNA sequencing. Histopathologic examination of postmortem tissue from case 1 was unremarkable, whereas acute hemorrhagic pneumonia and splenic necrosis were noted in case 2. The difference in clinical signs between the two cases may have been due to differences in the temporal course of FV3 disease at the time of necropsy. Failure to detect this infection previously in Missouri reptiles may be due to lack of surveillance, although cases may also represent a novel spillover to box turtles in Missouri. Our findings reiterate previous suggestions that the range of FV3 infection may be greater than previously documented and that infection may occur in host species yet to be tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Apakupakul
- Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, 1 Government Dr., St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Mary Duncan
- Saint Louis Zoo Department of Animal Health, 1 Government Dr., St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Kuttichantran Subramaniam
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2187 Mowry Rd., Bldg. 0471, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd., Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA
| | - Maris Brenn-White
- Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, 1 Government Dr., St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Jamie L Palmer
- Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, 1 Government Dr., St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Pedro H O Viadanna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2187 Mowry Rd., Bldg. 0471, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd., Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA
| | - Jordan A Vann
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2187 Mowry Rd., Bldg. 0471, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd., Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA
| | - Laura Adamovicz
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, 2001 S. Lincoln Ave., Urbana, Illinois 61802, USA
| | - Thomas B Waltzek
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2187 Mowry Rd., Bldg. 0471, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
- Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Rd., Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA
- Current affiliation: Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, P.O. Box 647034, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Sharon L Deem
- Saint Louis Zoo Institute for Conservation Medicine, 1 Government Dr., St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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Blake S, Palmer J, Brenn-White M, Deem SL. Home ranges of box turtles in a rural woodland and an urban park in Saint Louis, MO; implications for turtle conservation. Urban Ecosyst 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-023-01354-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThe negative consequences of fragmentation, infrastructure development, and urbanization onbiodiversity are well known. However, careful urban planning can provide viable habitat for some species and communities. Generally, r-selected species are more likely to persist in urbanizing landscapes, while long lived, mobile species, such as turtles, are likely to decline toward extinction. Understanding species responses across urban gradients is important for developing mitigation planning. We used VHF telemetry to quantify ranging behavior of three-toed box turtles in fragmented urban forest patches and a semi-contiguous large rural forest in Saint Louis, Missouri. We then simulated movement trajectories based on empirical data from the two turtles with the largest and smallest home ranges, overlaid on forest cover and road network maps of Missouri, to quantify the state-wide probability of turtles encountering roads. Home range (HR) size varied from 1–250Ha. The mean home range estimate of rural turtles was > 9 times larger than that of urban turtles. Simulations indicated that the least mobile turtle (HR 1Ha) would have a 22% likelihood of encountering a road if placed randomly in suitable habitat anywhere in the state. The likelihood increased to 90% for the most mobile turtle (HR 250Ha), with 10 road crossings per year. High turtle mortality, range restriction and population fragmentation are likely even in rural areas. In urban cityscapes, large, roadless forest patches offer the highest conservation potential for this species.
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Schilliger L, Paillusseau C, François C, Bonwitt J. Major Emerging Fungal Diseases of Reptiles and Amphibians. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12030429. [PMID: 36986351 PMCID: PMC10053826 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12030429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) are caused by pathogens that have undergone recent changes in terms of geographic spread, increasing incidence, or expanding host range. In this narrative review, we describe three important fungal EIDs with keratin trophism that are relevant to reptile and amphibian conservation and veterinary practice. Nannizziopsis spp. have been mainly described in saurians; infection results in thickened, discolored skin crusting, with eventual progression to deep tissues. Previously only reported in captive populations, it was first described in wild animals in Australia in 2020. Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (formely O. ophiodiicola) is only known to infect snakes; clinical signs include ulcerating lesions in the cranial, ventral, and pericloacal regions. It has been associated with mortality events in wild populations in North America. Batrachochytrium spp. cause ulceration, hyperkeratosis, and erythema in amphibians. They are a major cause of catastrophic amphibian declines worldwide. In general, infection and clinical course are determined by host-related characteristics (e.g., nutritional, metabolic, and immune status), pathogens (e.g., virulence and environmental survival), and environment (e.g., temperature, hygrometry, and water quality). The animal trade is thought to be an important cause of worldwide spread, with global modifications in temperature, hygrometry, and water quality further affecting fungal pathogenicity and host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Schilliger
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-188-616-831
| | - Clément Paillusseau
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
| | - Camille François
- Argos Veterinary Clinic of Paris Auteuil, 35 Rue Leconte de Lisle, 75016 Paris, France
- SpéNac Referral Center, 100 Boulevard de la Tour Maubourg, 75007 Paris, France
| | - Jesse Bonwitt
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, South Rd., Durham DH1 3LE, UK
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Out of Sight, Out of Mind or Just Something in the Way? Visual Barriers Do Not Reduce Intraspecific Agonism in an All-Male Group of Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12030269. [PMID: 35158593 PMCID: PMC8833692 DOI: 10.3390/ani12030269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The behavior of animals living in zoos and aquariums is influenced by the exhibits they live in, similar to how the behavior of animals in nature is influenced by the ecosystem they inhabit. In zoos and aquariums, changes in exhibit design can be implemented to modify the behavior of animals to ensure they are experiencing optimal welfare. Here, we evaluated if the addition of visual barriers—physical barriers placed at the surface of the water—reduce aggression amongst male Nile crocodiles living in a zoo. Both short- and long-term monitoring found that visual barriers did not reduce aggression within the group. While ineffective at reducing aggression, this study represents the first evaluation of exhibit design in relation to the behavior of a crocodilian species in a zoo or aquarium setting. As a commonly managed taxa in zoos and aquariums, it is imperative that their behavior and welfare are assessed systematically. We hope the methodologies and learnings from this study encourage future study of crocodilian behavior and welfare. Abstract Here, we evaluated if visual barriers could reduce intraspecific agonism in an all-male group of Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) living in a zoo. Crocodiles were monitored for nearly 100 h, and four “hotspots” of aggression within their exhibit were identified. Within these four locations, visual barriers were placed at the surface of the water with the goal of reducing agonism by targeting sight lines associated with their species-typical minimum exposure posture, where crocodiles submerge their body but maintain facial sensory organs above the water line. Crocodile behavior was then monitored for 226 h, evaluating both short- and long-term effects of the visual barriers. In both observation periods, intraspecific agonism was unaffected by visual barriers. However, crocodiles were more likely to be on land and closer together, after the barriers were installed, showing the barriers affected nonagonistic behaviors. Monitoring of such unintended effects is significant to ensure no welfare concerns are created in any exhibit or husbandry modification attempt. Additionally, time of day and temperature were significant predictors of behavior, highlighting the importance of such factors in the analysis of reptilian behavior. While ineffective at reducing agonism, this is the first published study evaluating exhibit design and behavior of crocodilians in zoos and aquariums. The methodologies and findings here should provide useful information for future behavioral and welfare studies of this understudied taxa.
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First Year Survival of Hatchling Eastern Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) at Their Northern Range Limit in Michigan's Lower Peninsula. J HERPETOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1670/19-129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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TISSUE CHANGES OBSERVED IN EASTERN BOX TURTLES ( TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA) FOLLOWING A PRESCRIBED FIRE. J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 51:1047-1051. [PMID: 33480588 DOI: 10.1638/2019-0046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Necropsies were performed on five eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina), found in an area recently subjected to an early-season prescribed fire, to determine whether mortality was burn related. External injuries primarily consisted of burns to exposed extremities and carapacial scutes which ranged from two burned scales to >80% of the shell. Internally, there was no evidence of smoke inhalation, but multiorgan and multifocal inflammation may have contributed to mortality.
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Adamovicz L, Allender MC, Gibbons PM. Emerging Infectious Diseases of Chelonians: An Update. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2020; 23:263-283. [PMID: 32327035 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2020.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chelonians are increasingly challenged by anthropogenic threats and disease. This article summarizes recent literature and clinical experiences regarding 4 emerging infectious diseases in turtles and tortoises: ranaviruses, cryptosporidiosis, intranuclear coccodiosis of Testudines, and Emydomyces testavorans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Adamovicz
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802, USA.
| | - Matthew C Allender
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, 2001 South Lincoln Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802, USA
| | - Paul M Gibbons
- Avian and Exotic Veterinary Care, 7826 Northeast Sandy Boulevard, Portland, OR 97213, USA
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Martin BT, Douglas MR, Chafin TK, Placyk JS, Birkhead RD, Phillips CA, Douglas ME. Contrasting signatures of introgression in North American box turtle (
Terrapene
spp.) contact zones. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:4186-4202. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.15622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley T. Martin
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville AR USA
| | - Marlis R. Douglas
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville AR USA
| | - Tyler K. Chafin
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville AR USA
| | - John S. Placyk
- Department of Biology University of Texas Tyler TX USA
- Science Division Trinity Valley Community College Athens TX USA
| | | | - Christopher A. Phillips
- Illinois Natural History Survey Prairie Research Institute University of Illinois Champaign IL USA
| | - Michael E. Douglas
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas Fayetteville AR USA
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MORTALITY INVESTIGATION OF MONITORED EASTERN BOX TURTLES (TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA) IN CENTRAL ILLINOIS, USA, FROM 2016–18. J Wildl Dis 2020. [DOI: 10.7589/2019-01-016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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10
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Adamovicz L, Baker SJ, Merchant M, Allender MC. Plasma antibacterial activities in ornate (Terrapene ornata) and eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2020; 333:295-305. [PMID: 32037741 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Chelonians are one of the most imperiled vertebrate taxa and many species are increasingly threatened by disease, however, the immune response in this group is understudied. We quantified the innate immune response of eastern (Terrapene carolina; EBT) and ornate (Terrapene ornate; OBT) box turtles using plasma antibacterial activity assays. Plasma from both species abolished or significantly reduced the growth of all eight bacterial species evaluated, including Salmonella typhimurium, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, Citrobacter freundi, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Staphylococcus aureus. Bactericidal capacity was greater in OBT compared to EBT, and OBT plasma retained high antibacterial activities at a broader temperature range (20-40°C) compared to EBT (30-40°C). Plasma antibacterial activity was abolished following treatment with heat, protease, and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, indicating that complement is likely responsible for the observed effects. Further characterization of the box turtle immune response may provide insight into the importance of infectious diseases for species conservation, enabling the development of more efficient and effective population management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Adamovicz
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, Illinois
| | - Sarah J Baker
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, Illinois.,Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoenix, Arizona
| | - Mark Merchant
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, McNeese State University, Lake Charles, Louisiana
| | - Matthew C Allender
- Wildlife Epidemiology Laboratory, University of Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine, Urbana, Illinois
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PREVALENCE OF BOX TURTLE ADENOVIRUS IN EASTERN BOX TURTLES ( TERRAPENE CAROLINA CAROLINA) PRESENTED TO A WILDLIFE REHABILITATION CENTER IN VIRGINIA, USA. J Zoo Wildl Med 2020; 50:769-777. [PMID: 31926506 DOI: 10.1638/2018-0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) are a native North American species with a declining population trend that may be attributable to habitat fragmentation, vehicle collisions, and disease. Adenoviral infections can cause significant morbidity and mortality in captive reptile populations. Adenoviruses have been documented in box turtles, but their occurrence and impact in wild populations are unknown. A disease survey was performed at The Wildlife Center of Virginia, USA, to assess the prevalence of box turtle adenovirus (BTAdV) in wild eastern box turtles and evaluate potential associations with clinical disease. Swabs from the oral cavity, including the choanal slit, and the cloaca were collected from 106 eastern box turtles from July 2015 through June 2016. The quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) primer detected both ornate box turtle adenovirus 1 and eastern box turtle adenovirus. The resulting qPCR adenovirus prevalence was 55.7% (n = 59). Most animals (99.3%) that tested positive for BTAdV had fewer than 100 viral copies/ng DNA. This study did not find a statistically significant association between cause of admission, age, sex, outcome, and BTAdV qPCR status. However, the probability of BTAdV detection was 1.5 times higher in rehabilitation turtles compared with wild turtles (P = 0.01). Albumin was significantly lower in qPCR BTAdV-positive turtles (P = 0.007). Hypoalbuminemia is not generally associated with adenovirus infections in other species, and no obvious clinical cause for this abnormality was identified. The results of this study suggest that eastern box turtles may harbor BTAdV infections at low levels and that infection is rarely associated with clinical disease, potentially identifying BTAdV as a host-adapted pathogen. Future studies should focus on this pathogen's ability to induce clinical disease and its potential impact on recovery efforts for this species.
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Raphael BL, Macey SK, Platt SG, Seimon TA, Ossiboff RJ, Horne BD, Gamarra AL, Barrera MG, Lwin T, Soe MM, Aung SH, New SS, Khaing LL, Platt K. Health Screening of Burmese Star Tortoises (Geochelone platynota) Prior to Introduction to the Wild. CHELONIAN CONSERVATION AND BIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.2744/ccb-1353.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bonnie L. Raphael
- Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York 10460 USA [; ; ]
| | - Suzanne K. Macey
- American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, New York 10024 USA [; ; ]
| | - Steven G. Platt
- Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York 10460 USA [; ; ]
| | - Tracie A. Seimon
- Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York 10460 USA [; ; ]
| | - Robert J. Ossiboff
- Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York 10460 USA [; ; ]
| | - Brian D. Horne
- Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York 10460 USA [; ; ]
| | - Ariana L. Gamarra
- American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, New York 10024 USA [; ; ]
| | - Michelle G. Barrera
- American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, New York 10024 USA [; ; ]
| | - Tint Lwin
- Turtle Survival Alliance - Myanmar Program, No. 12, Nanrattaw Street, Kamayut Township, Yangon, Myanmar []
| | - Me Me Soe
- Turtle Survival Alliance - Myanmar Program, No. 12, Nanrattaw Street, Kamayut Township, Yangon, Myanmar []
| | - Shwe Htay Aung
- Myanmar Forest Department, Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division, Lawkanandar Wildlife Sanctuary, Bagan, Myanmar
| | - San San New
- Myanmar Forest Department, Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division, Minzontaung Wildlife Sanctuary, Natowgyi, Myanmar
| | - Lay Lay Khaing
- Myanmar Forest Department, Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division, Minzontaung Wildlife Sanctuary, Natowgyi, Myanmar
| | - Kalyar Platt
- Turtle Survival Alliance - Myanmar Program, No. 12, Nanrattaw Street, Kamayut Township, Yangon, Myanmar []
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Wirth W, Schwarzkopf L, Skerratt LF, Ariel E. Ranaviruses and reptiles. PeerJ 2018; 6:e6083. [PMID: 30581674 PMCID: PMC6295156 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Ranaviruses can infect many vertebrate classes including fish, amphibians and reptiles, but for the most part, research has been focused on non-reptilian hosts, amphibians in particular. More recently, reports of ranaviral infections of reptiles are increasing with over 12 families of reptiles currently susceptible to ranaviral infection. Reptiles are infected by ranaviruses that are genetically similar to, or the same as, the viruses that infect amphibians and fish; however, physiological and ecological differences result in differences in study designs. Although ranaviral disease in reptiles is often influenced by host species, viral strain and environmental differences, general trends in pathogenesis are emerging. More experimental studies using a variety of reptile species, life stages and routes of transmission are required to unravel the complexity of wild ranavirus transmission. Further, our understanding of the reptilian immune response to ranaviral infection is still lacking, although the considerable amount of work conducted in amphibians will serve as a useful guide for future studies in reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wytamma Wirth
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Lin Schwarzkopf
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Lee F Skerratt
- Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ellen Ariel
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University of North Queensland, Townsville, QLD, Australia
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14
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Changing Thermal Landscapes: Merging Climate Science and Landscape Ecology through Thermal Biology. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40823-018-0034-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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15
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Investigation of multiple mortality events in eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina). PLoS One 2018; 13:e0195617. [PMID: 29621347 PMCID: PMC5886585 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Wildlife mortality investigations are important for conservation, food safety, and public health; but they are infrequently reported for cryptic chelonian species. Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) are declining due to anthropogenic factors and disease, and while mortality investigations have been reported for captive and translocated individuals, few descriptions exist for free-living populations. We report the results of four natural mortality event investigations conducted during routine health surveillance of three Illinois box turtle populations in 2011, 2013, 2014, and 2015. In April 2011, over 50 box turtles were found dead and a polymicrobial necrotizing bacterial infection was diagnosed in five survivors using histopathology and aerobic/anaerobic culture. This represents the first reported occurrence of necrotizing bacterial infection in box turtles. In August 2013, paired histopathology and qPCR ranavirus detection in nine turtles was significantly associated with occupation of moist microhabitats, identification of oral plaques and nasal discharge on physical exam, and increases in the heterophil count and heterophil to lymphocyte ratio (p < 0.05). In July 2014 and 2015, ranavirus outbreaks reoccurred within a 0.2km radius of highly-disturbed habitat containing ephemeral ponds used by amphibians for breeding. qPCR ranavirus detection in five individuals each year was significantly associated with use of moist microhabitats (p < 0.05). Detection of single and co-pathogens (Terrapene herpesvirus 1, adenovirus, and Mycoplasma sp.) was common before, during, and after mortality events, but improved sample size would be necessary to determine the impacts of these pathogens on the occurrence and outcome of mortality events. This study provides novel information about the causes and predictors of natural box turtle mortality events. Continued investigation of health, disease, and death in free-living box turtles will improve baseline knowledge of morbidity and mortality, identify threats to survival, and promote the formation of effective conservation strategies.
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