Assessment of the effective impact of bisphenols on mitochondrial activity and steroidogenesis in a dose-dependency in mice TM3 Leydig cells

Toxicity of bisphenol A and its replacements in the mice Leydig cells in vitro

The aim of the study was to examine the potential impacts of bisphenol A (BPA) and its analogues BPB, BPF, and BPS on mice TM3 Leydig cells, with respect to basal cell viability parameters such as metabolic activity, cell membrane integrity, and lysosomal activity after 48-h exposure. In addition, monitoring of potential bisphenol´s actions included evaluation of ROS production and gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) complemented by determination of testosterone secretion. Obtained results revealed significant inhibition in mitochondrial activity started at 10 microg/ml of bisphenols after 48-h exposure. Cell membrane integrity was significantly decreased at 5 microg/ml of BPA and BPF and 10, 25, and 50 microg/ml of BPA and BPS. The lysosomal activity was significantly affected at 10, 25, and 50 microg/ml of applied bisphenols. A significant overproduction of ROS was recorded mainly at 5 and 10 microg/ml of tested compounds. In addition, significant inhibition of GJIC was observed at 5 microg/ml of BPB followed by a progressive decline at higher applied doses. In the case of testosterone production, a significant decline was confirmed at 10, 25 and 50 microg/ml.

Bisphenol S exposure induces cytotoxicity in mouse Leydig cells

Bisphenol S (BPS), an increasingly used alternative to bisphenol A, has been linked to testosterone deficiency and male reproductive dysfunction in laboratory animals. This study aimed to examine the cytotoxicity of BPS exposure to Leydig cells and to investigate its possible mechanisms. After treatment with BPS (100, 200 and 400 μM) for 48 h in vitro, TM3 mouse Leydig cells exhibited a dose-dependent decrease in the viability. Furthermore, BPS challenge triggered oxidative stress manifested by compromised activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase with exaggerated formation of reactive oxygen species. Especially, BPS exposure resulted in augmented mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, dissipated mitochondrial membrane potential and reduced ATP generation, along with an altered energy metabolism. Moreover, BPS stimulation enhanced BAX expression and caspase-3 activity and inhibited BCL-2 expression. In addition, BPS-treated TM3 cells showed an accumulation of autophagic vacuoles, together with increased Beclin1 and P62 expression and elevated LC3B-II/LC3B-I ratio. These results demonstrated that in vitro exposure to BPS exerted cytotoxicity to TM3 Leydig cells through inducing oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, autophagic disturbance and apoptosis.

Men´s reproductive alterations caused by bisphenol A and its analogues: a review

Male reproductive functions are an important area affecting men´s overall health and well-being. However, during the last years, there has been observed increasing incidence of male reproductive issues. The radical growth has been recorded parallelly with a massive expanse of industrialization and agricultural chemigation. Many groups of experts have begun to identify several potential factors and substances that may have adverse effects on men´s reproductive health. Since then, xenobiotics have become a major concern of many scientific studies. There is evidence that most of them have multigenerational and transgenerational effects on reproductive health, which is a serious problem for our population. Bisphenol A could be considered as one of the most studied endocrine disruptors. Until now, several negative effects of bisphenol A were associated with reduced weight testes, histological alterations, impairment spermatogenesis, and steroidogenesis as well as with testes or prostate cancer. Due to convincing evidence, bisphenol A has been started to replace by its analogues such as bisphenol B, S, F, in order to eliminate and suppress the risk of exposure to bisphenol A. However, it seems that a lack of toxicological analyses allows using of these hazardous substances in daily life. Their harmful effect was confirmed by the animal in vitro and in vivo models, while the epidemiological studies monitoring the impact of bisphenol analogues on men's reproductive health are markedly limited. This review provides information about the effects of bisphenol on reproductive health in men. At the same time, it is focused on physiological aspects of sperm viability, steroid hormone secretion, sperm motility, or testes histology in relation to bisphenols exposure.

Introduction to DOK2 and its potential role in cancer

Cancer is a complex, multifactorial disease that modern medicine ultimately aims to overcome. Downstream of tyrosine kinase 2 (DOK2) is a well-known tumor suppressor gene, and a member of the downstream protein DOK family of tyrosine kinases. Through a search of original literature indexed in PubMed and other databases, the present review aims to extricate the mechanisms by which DOK2 acts on cancer, thereby identifying more reliable and effective therapeutic targets to promote enhanced methods of cancer prevention and treatment. The review focuses on the role of DOK2 in multiple tumor types in the lungs, intestines, liver, and breast. Additionally, we discuss the potential mechanisms of action of DOK2 and the downstream consequences via the Ras/MPAK/ERK or PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathways.

Bisphenol S leads to cytotoxicity-induced antioxidant responses and oxidative stress in isolated rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) hepatocytes

BACKGROUND

Bisphenol S (BPS) is a chemical compound that is utilized in the plastic industry as an alternative to bisphenol A (BPA). The toxic effects of BPS in fish is less known and limited. Therefore, in the present study, the influence of BPS on rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) hepatocytes in vitro was investigated.

METHODS AND RESULTS

For this purpose the fish hepatocytes were isolated, and then the cultured cells were treated with increasing concentrations of BPS (0, 15.63, 31.25, 62.50, 125, 250, and 500 µM) for 24 h. The cytotoxic impact of BPS was determined in the culture media using lactate dehydrogenase assay and then, the antioxidant defence indicators were assayed. The results showed that concentration-dependent increases were observed in the percentage of cytotoxicity. The superoxide dismutase activity was reduced, while the catalase and glutathione peroxidase activity increased with all of the BPS concentrations. The glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity significantly increased after a BPS concentration of 31.25 µM or higher, while GST Theta 1-1 activity was decreased by the same concentrations of BPS. The reduced glutathione content significantly decreased with a BPS concentration of 31.25 µM or higher, and the malondialdehyde content increased after BPS concentrations of 125, 250, and 500 µM.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings determined herein suggested that BPS causes cytotoxicity in fish hepatocytes and can lead to oxidative stress, resulting hepatotoxic in fish. Thus, the utilization of BPS instead of BPA as safe alternative in industry should be re-evaluated in the future for environmental health.

The effect of Apium graveolens L., Levisticum officinale and Calendula officinalis L. on cell viability, membrane integrity, steroidogenesis, and intercellular communication in mice Leydig cells in vitro

Several plants have the potential to protect essential reproductive processes such as spermatogenesis or steroidogenesis, however, effective concentrations and main mechanisms of action are still unknown. This in vitro study was aimed to assess the effects of Apium graveolens L., Levisticum officinale, and Calendula officinalis L. extracts on the structural integrity, functional activity and gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) in mice Leydig cells. TM3 cells were grown in the presence of experimental extracts (37.5; 75; 150 and 300 µg/ml) for 24 h. For the present study, high-performance liquid chromatography analysis was used to quantify flavonoids or phenolic acids. Subsequently, Leydig cell viability was assessed by alamarBlue assay, while the cell membrane integrity was detected by 5-carboxyfluorescein diacetate-acetoxymethyl ester. The level of steroid hormones production was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Additionally, GJIC was assessed by scalpel loading/dye transfer assay. According to our results, Apium graveolens L. significantly increased the viability and cell membrane integrity at 75 µg/ml (109.0±4.3%) followed by a decline at 300 µg/ml (89.4±2.3%). In case of Levisticum officinale and Calendula officinalis L. was observed significant decrease at 150 µg/ml (88.8±11.66%; 87.4±6.0%) and 300 µg/ml (86.2±9.3%; 84.1±4.6%). Furthermore, Apium graveolens L. significantly increased the progesterone and testosterone production (75 and 150 µg/ml) however, Levisticum officinale and Calendula officinalis L. significantly reduced steroid hormones synthesis at 150 and 300 µg/ml. Finally, the disturbance of GJIC was significantly affected at 300 µg/ml of Levisticum officinale (82.5±7.7%) and Calendula officinalis L. (79.8±7.0%). The balanced concentration ratio may support the Leydig cell function, steroidogenesis as well as all essential parameters that may significantly improve reproductive functions.

Endocrine disruptors and gut microbiome interactions

Anthropogenic environmental pollutants affect many physiological, biochemical, and endocrine actions as reproduction, metabolism, immunity, behavior and as such can interfere with any aspect of hormone action. Microbiota and their genes, microbiome, a large body of microorganisms, first of all bacteria and co-existing in the host´s gut, are now believed to be autonomous endocrine organ, participating at overall endocrine, neuroendocrine and immunoendocrine regulations. While an extensive literature is available on the physiological and pathological aspects of both players, information about their mutual relationships is scarce. In the review we attempted to show various examples where both, endocrine disruptors and microbiota are meeting and can act cooperatively or in opposition and to show the mechanism, if known, staying behind these actions.

Assessment of the Effective Impact of Bisphenols on Mitochondrial Activity, Viability and Steroidogenesis in a Dose-Dependency in Human Adrenocortical Carcinoma Cells

In recent years, bisphenol analogues such as bisphenol B (BPB), bisphenol F (BPF), and bisphenol S (BPS) have come to replace bisphenol A (BPA) in food packaging and food containers, since BPA has been shown to leach into food and water, causing numerous negative health effects. Although much information on the endocrine activity of BPA is available, a proper human hazard assessment of analogues that are believed to have a less harmful toxicity profile is lacking. The aim of our in vitro study was to assess the potential effect of bisphenol B, F, and S on the biosynthesis of steroid hormones in human H295R adrenocortical carcinoma cells, using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, we evaluated mitochondrial activity using the MTT test and viability using triple assay. Adrenocortical carcinoma cells were cultivated for 24 h in the presence of bisphenol B, F, or S (0.1, 0.5, 1, 10, 25, 50, 75, 100 μM). We demonstrated that BPB, BPF, and BPS could affect progesterone and testosterone secretion, as well as affect cell mitochondrial, lysosomal, and metabolic activity, as well as plasma membrane integrity, but considerably more detailed and systematic research is required for a better understanding of risks associated with the effects of bisphenols on steroidogenesis.

Impact of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on steroidogenesis and consequences on testicular function

Testicular steroidogenesis is a tightly regulated process that produces the androgens important for the development, maintenance and function of the male reproductive system. These androgens are also essential for overall health, and well-being. Disruptions in the ability of the testis to form steroids can result in developmental abnormalities, dysfunction, and infertility. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can interfere with the intricate signaling and metabolizing networks that produce androgens and promote their dysfunction. These chemicals are found ubiquitously in our environment, as they are integral components of products that are used every day. The effects of EDCs, such as bisphenols, phthalates, and alkyl chemicals, have been studied independently, revealing deleterious effects; but the combined influence of these structures on steroidogenesis has yet to be completely elucidated. This manuscript presents an updated review on EDC mixtures and their impact on testicular function and fertility, highlighting new findings that illustrate the anti-androgenic capabilities of EDC mixtures.

In vitro effects of bisphenol F on antioxidant system indicators in the isolated hepatocytes of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss)

Bisphenol F (BPF) has been used frequently in the plastics industry and the production of daily consumer products as an alternative to bisphenol A (BPA). It was aimed herein to determine the cytotoxic effects of BPF on hepatocytes isolated from the liver of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay and antioxidant defence system indicators. The cultured hepatocytes were exposed to seven concentrations (0, 15.63, 31.25, 62.50, 125, 250, and 500 µM) of BPF for 24 h. According to the LDH assay, the percentage of cytotoxicity was increased dose dependently in the cells. The malondialdehyde content, which is indicative of lipid peroxidation, was increased significantly at BPF concentrations between 15.63 and 250 µM, whereas it remained unchanged with a concentration of 500 µM. The activities of superoxide dismutase were increased, while those of catalase were decreased with all of the BPF concentrations. Elevated levels of reduced glutathione content were determined with BPF concentrations between 15.63 and 250 µM, but decreased significantly with a concentration of 500 µM. Significant increases in the activities of the glutathione peroxidase were found in hepatocytes treated with BPF at concentrations of 31.25 to 500 µM. GST activity was only significantly increased with a BPF concentration of 250 µM. The results showed that the toxic mechanism of BPF was mainly based on cell membrane damage and oxidative stress, which have an influence on antioxidant defences. Therefore, BPF should be reconsidered as a safe alternative instead of BPA in the manufacturing of industrial or daily products.

Exogenous Factors Affecting the Functional Integrity of Male Reproduction

Natural processes along with increased industrial production and the irresponsible behavior of mankind have resulted in environmental pollution. Environmental pollutants can be categorized based on their characteristics and appearance into the following groups: physical, biological, and chemical. Every single one of them represents a serious threat to the male reproductive tract despite the different modes of action. Male gonads and gametes are especially vulnerable to the effect of exogenous factors; therefore, they are considered a reliable indicator of environmental pollution. The impact of xenobiotics or radiation leads to an irreversible impairment of fertility displayed by histological changes, modulated androgen production, or compromised spermatozoa (or germ cells) quality. The present article reviews the exogenous threats, male reproductive system, the mode of action, and overall impact on the reproductive health of humans and animals.

In vitro assessment of the impact of nickel on the viability and steroidogenesis in the human adrenocortical carcinoma (NCI-H295R) cell line

Nickel is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant, which has various effects on reproductive endocrinology. In this study, human adrenocortical carcinoma (NCI-H295R) cell line was used as an in vitro biological model to study the effect of nickel chloride (NiCl2) on the viability and steroidogenesis. The cells were exposed to different concentrations (3.90; 7.80; 15.60; 31.20; 62.50; 125; 250 and 500 microM) of NiCl2 and compared with control group (culture medium without NiCl2). The cell viability was measured by the metabolic activity assay. Production of sexual steroid hormones was quantified by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Following 48 h culture of the cells in the presence of NiCl2 a dose-dependent depletion of progesterone release was observed even at the lower concentrations. In fact, lower levels of progesterone were detected in groups with higher doses (>/=125 microM) of NiCl2 (P<0.01), which also elicited cytotoxic action. A more prominent decrease in testosterone production (P<0.01) was also noted in comparison to that of progesterone. On the other hand, the release of 17beta-estradiol was substantially increased at low concentrations (3.90 to 62.50 microM) of NiCl2. The cell viability remained relatively unaltered up to 125 microM (P>0.05) and slightly decreased from 250 microM of NiCl2 (P<0.05). Our results indicate endocrine disruptive effect of NiCl2 on the release of progesterone and testosterone in the NCI-H295R cell line. Although no detrimental effect of NiCl2 (</=62.50 microM) could be found on 17beta-estradiol production, its toxicity may reflect at other points of the steroidogenic pathway.

Bisphenols Threaten Male Reproductive Health via Testicular Cells

Male reproductive function and health are largely dependent on the testes, which are strictly regulated by their major cell components, i. e., Sertoli, Leydig, and germ cells. Sertoli cells perform a crucial phagocytic function in addition to supporting the development of germ cells. Leydig cells produce hormones essential for male reproductive function, and germ cell quality is a key parameter for male fertility assessment. However, these cells have been identified as primary targets of endocrine disruptors, including bisphenols. Bisphenols are a category of man-made organic chemicals used to manufacture plastics, epoxy resins, and personal care products such as lipsticks, face makeup, and nail lacquers. Despite long-term uncertainty regarding their safety, bisphenols are still being used worldwide, especially bisphenol A. While considerable attention has been paid to the effects of bisphenols on health, current bisphenol-related reproductive health cases indicate that greater attention should be given to these chemicals. Bisphenols, especially bisphenol A, F, and S, have been reported to elicit various effects on testicular cells, including apoptosis, DNA damage, disruption of intercommunication among cells, mitochondrial damage, disruption of tight junctions, and arrest of proliferation, which threaten male reproductive health. In addition, bisphenols are xenoestrogens, which alter organs and cells functions via agonistic or antagonistic interplay with hormone receptors. In this review, we provide in utero, in vivo, and in vitro evidence that currently available brands of bisphenols impair male reproductive health through their action on testicular cells.

Investigation of the Properties and Effects of Salvia Officinalis L. on the Viability, Steroidogenesis and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Production in TM3 Leydig Cells in Vitro

The aim of our study was to reveal the in vitro effects of Salvia officinalis L. (37.5, 75, 150, 200, 250, 300 and 600 µg/ml) extract on the TM3 Leydig cell viability, membrane integrity, steroidogenesis and reactive oxygen species production after 24 h and 48 h cultivation. For the present study, the extract prepared from Salvia officinalis L. leaves was analysed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for selected flavonoids and phenolic acids followed by a determination of its free radicals scavenging activity (DPPH). Furthermore, Leydig cell viability was assessed by the mitochondrial toxicity assay (MTT), while the membrane integrity was evaluated by 5- carboxyfluorescein diacetate-acetoxymethyl ester (5-CFDA-AM). The level of steroid hormones was performed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) from the culture media, while the superoxide radical generation was measured by the nitroblue tetrazolium chloride (NBT) assay. The results show that experimental concentrations did not damage the cell membrane integrity and viability when present at below 300 µg/ml, it was only at 600 µg/ml that a significant (P<0.05) cell viability decline was observed after a 48 h cultivation. A significant (P<0.05) stimulation of testosterone secretion was recorded at 250 µg/ml for 24 h, while the prolonged cultivation time significantly (P<0.05) increased the testosterone and progesterone production at 150, 200, 250 and 300 µg/ml. Furthermore, none of the selected doses exhibited significant ROS-promoting effects however, the highest dose of Salvia initiated the free radical scavenging activity in cultured mice Leydig cells.