Parasitoid-induced behavioral alterations of Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae infected with mermithid nematodes (Nematoda: Mermithidae)

Both consumptive and non-consumptive effects of predators impact mosquito populations and have implications for disease transmission

Predator-prey interactions influence prey traits through both consumptive and non-consumptive effects, and variation in these traits can shape vector-borne disease dynamics. Meta-analysis methods were employed to generate predation effect sizes by different categories of predators and mosquito prey. This analysis showed that multiple families of aquatic predators are effective in consumptively reducing mosquito survival, and that the survival of Aedes, Anopheles, and Culex mosquitoes is negatively impacted by consumptive effects of predators. Mosquito larval size was found to play a more important role in explaining the heterogeneity of consumptive effects from predators than mosquito genus. Mosquito survival and body size were reduced by non-consumptive effects of predators, but development time was not significantly impacted. In addition, Culex vectors demonstrated predator avoidance behavior during oviposition. The results of this meta-analysis suggest that predators limit disease transmission by reducing both vector survival and vector size, and that associations between drought and human West Nile virus cases could be driven by the vector behavior of predator avoidance during oviposition. These findings are likely to be useful to infectious disease modelers who rely on vector traits as predictors of transmission.

Behavior of Aedes albifasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae from eggs with different dormancy times and its relationship with parasitism by Strelkovimermis spiculatus (Nematoda: Mermithidae)

Aedine mosquitoes go through unfavorable periods as dormant eggs. However, extended dormancy times lead to a depletion of egg reserves, which might be partially compensated by changes in larval-feeding behavior. Changes in larval behavior may also be induced by parasitism by mermithids probably as a strategy to reduce the impact of the parasite on the host. The most abundant floodwater mosquito in southern South America is Aedes albifasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae), a species naturally parasitized by Strelkovimermis spiculatus (Nematoda: Mermithidae). This study aimed to evaluate the behavior of fourth-instar larvae of Ae. albifasciatus from eggs with 2, 4, and 6 months of dormancy, parasitized or not by S. spiculatus. To achieve this, eight categories of behavior were defined, and then, each individual was observed for 5 min, and its behaviors and their duration were recorded. The behaviors with the highest percentage of observation time were still (50.1%) and wriggle swimming (33.6%), while those with the lowest percentage of observation time were those involving active foraging (less than 8%). A great variability in the behaviors was observed among individuals within the same treatment. The type and duration of each behavior did not vary in relation to egg dormancy time or parasitism, but parasitism affected the level of larval activity. Parasitized larvae performed, on average, fewer behaviors than non-parasitized larvae. This result supports the hypothesis that S. spiculatus parasitism affects the behavior of Ae. albifasciatus larvae by reducing their level of activity.

Macrophyte Diversity and Complexity Reduce Larval Mosquito Abundance

The role of aquatic arthropod diversity and community interactions of larval mosquitoes are important for understanding mosquito population dynamics. We tested the effects of aquatic macrophyte diversity and habitat structural complexity in shaping the predator and competitor invertebrate communities associated with mosquito larvae. Experimental mesocosms were planted with live aquatic macrophytes and allowed to be naturally colonized by local invertebrates. Results indicated a positive effect of macrophyte diversity on competitor diversity and a negative effect on predator diversity. In turn, predator diversity negatively impacted mosquito abundance through a direct effect, while competitor diversity showed an indirect negative effect on mosquito larval abundance through its positive effect on predator diversity. The enhancement of aquatic macrophyte diversity and structural complexity has practical applications for the reduction of mosquito populations in managed systems where complete source elimination is not possible.

A parasite's modification of host behavior reduces predation on its host

Parasite modification of host behavior is common, and the literature is dominated by demonstrations of enhanced predation on parasitized prey resulting in transmission of parasites to their next host. We present a case in which predation on parasitized prey is reduced. Despite theoretical modeling suggesting that this phenomenon should be common, it has been reported in only a few host-parasite-predator systems. Using a system of gregarine endosymbionts in host mosquitoes, we designed experiments to compare the vulnerability of parasitized and unparasitized mosquito larvae to predation by obligate predatory mosquito larvae and then compared behavioral features known to change in the presence of predatory cues. We exposed Aedes triseriatus larvae to the parasite Ascogregarina barretti and the predator Toxohrynchites rutilus and assessed larval mortality rate under each treatment condition. Further, we assessed behavioral differences in larvae due to infection and predation stimuli by recording larvae and scoring behaviors and positions within microcosms. Infection with gregarines reduced cohort mortality in the presence of the predator, but the parasite did not affect mortality alone. Further, infection by parasites altered behavior such that infected hosts thrashed less frequently than uninfected hosts and were found more frequently on or in a refuge within the microcosm. By reducing predation on their host, gregarines may be acting as mutualists in the presence of predation on their hosts. These results illustrate a higher-order interaction, in which a relationship between a species pair (host-endosymbiont or predator-prey) is altered by the presence of a third species.

Late-instar Behavior of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) Larvae in Different Thermal and Nutritive Environments

The effects of temperature on ectotherm growth have been well documented. How temperature affects foraging behavior is less well explored, and has not been studied in larval mosquitoes. We hypothesized that temperature changes foraging behavior in the aquatic larval phase of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti L. Based on empirical results in other systems, we predicted that foraging effort would increase at higher temperatures in these insects. We tested this prediction over three temperature conditions at two food levels. We measured behaviors by video recording replicated cohorts of fourth-instar mosquitoes and assessing individual behavior and time budgets using an ethogram. We found both food level and temperature had significant impacts on larval foraging behavior, with more time spent actively foraging at low food levels and at low temperatures, and more occurrences of active foraging at both temperature extremes. These results are contrary to some of our predictions, but fit into theoretical responses to temperature based upon dynamic energy budget models.

Reduced competitiveness of Wolbachia infected Aedes aegypti larvae in intra- and inter-specific immature interactions

Wolbachia are maternally inherited intracellular bacteria that frequently infect a diverse range of arthropod species. Empirical and theoretical studies examining Wolbachia invasiveness have emphasized Wolbachia effects on adult hosts, but recent studies show that Wolbachia impacts on immature hosts can be important also. Here, we have examined for effects of Wolbachia infection in Aedes aegypti. Specifically, differential survivorship is observed when young larvae (1st instar) are exposed to older Aedes albopictus larvae (4th instar) or con-specific larvae. In an additional experiment, we have examined for differential behavior and observed that Wolbachia-infected larvae differ from uninfected larvae in their reaction to light stimulation. Our results support a hypothesized effect of Wolbachia on A. aegypti larval behavior. The results are discussed in relation to the ability of Wolbachia to invade natural populations and recently applied public health strategies that target the replacement or suppression of this important disease vector.

Impacts of Wolbachia infection on predator prey relationships: evaluating survival and horizontal transfer between wMelPop infected Aedes aegypti and its predators

The wMelPop strain of Wolbachia is currently being investigated for its potential use as a biological control agent to reduce the ability of Aedes aegypti (L.) mosquitoes to transmit dengue viruses. The survival of a potential wMelPop infected Ae. aegypti strain for field release is important as a higher susceptibility to predation in the wMelPop strain could result in difficulties in achieving fixation. We investigated immature and adult survival as a function of susceptibility to predation by six naturally occurring predator species; cyclopoid copepods, fish, predatory Toxorhynchites mosquito larvae and a salticid jumping spider. The trials indicated that wMelPop infected and uninfected Ae. aegypti larvae and adults were equally susceptible to predation to all six tested predators. In addition to evaluating any potential fitness costs to the infected host, we were unable to demonstrate horizontal transfer of wMelPop via consumption of infected Ae. aegypti larvae to the above predators. That susceptibility to predation was consistent across mosquito life stage, predator species and experimental venue is strong evidence that despite the neurotrophic and extensive nature of wMelPop infection, behavioral changes are not occurring, or at least not a determining factor in survival when exposed to a predator. Based on our results and the ecology of Wolbachia and mosquito predators, horizontal transfer of wMelPop from Ae. aegypti into naturally occurring predators is not cause for concern.

Evaluation of bifenthrin applications in tires to prevent Aedes mosquito breeding

The efficacy of maximum label rates of bifenthrin applications to dry tires to prevent Aedes mosquito breeding was investigated by field colonization and bioassay trials in shaded and unshaded locations. Aedes notoscriptus and Culex quinquefasciatus larvae were the most abundant species present in the field colonization trial. Colonization and survival of Ae. notoscriptus larvae to the late instar occurred significantly earlier in treated tires in shaded compared with unshaded locations (P = 0.002). Bifenthrin applications in shaded tires only prevented early instar survival for approximately 2.6 wk. Aedes notoscriptus late instars did not appear in the treated unshaded tires. Culex quinquefasciatus colonized treated tires from the 2nd wk in both shaded and unshaded treatments. In the bioassay, water from bifenthrin-treated tires, through extrapolation, was found to kill approximately 100% of late instar Ae. notoscriptus for only approximately 2.0-2.2 wk in shaded and unshaded tires. Under conditions optimal for Aedes breeding, such as shaded locations, high ambient temperatures, high relative humidity, and high amounts of leaf/organic matter accumulations, bifenthrin may not be effective as a larval control measure in tires for greater than 2.0-2.6 wk.