Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter in Conventional and No Antibiotics Ever Broiler Farms

Campylobacter is a leading cause of enteric disease worldwide. No antibiotics ever (NAE) poultry has become increasingly popular, yet little is known about the incidence and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of Campylobacter in this production system. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence, concentration, and AMR of Campylobacter in conventional (CV) and NAE-raised broilers. Two CV and two NAE commercial broiler flocks were included in this study. Cecum (n = 420) and ileum (n = 420) of chickens were collected at different stages during the broiler grow-out phase and following transportation to the processing plant. Samples of litter (n = 24), feed (n = 24), and water (n = 24) were also collected. Screening for Campylobacter was conducted using real-time PCR assay, and enumeration was performed by direct plating on Campy Cefex agar. Campylobacter isolates were confirmed by real-time PCR, and antimicrobial susceptibility was evaluated following the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System (NARMS) methods. Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS) was used to identify AMR genes carried by the resistant isolates. Campylobacter prevalence reached 100% within the first 3 weeks of summer production under both NAE and CV rearing. A lower Campylobacter prevalence was detected in conventionally raised broilers during fall (P ≤ 0.05), yet no change in prevalence was observed in NAE birds (P > 0.05). Populations were high in the cecum, carrying an average of 6.6 Log10 CFU/g after transportation, and antimicrobial-resistant Campylobacter was isolated from CV broilers during the fall. Three isolates (1.2%), identified as C. coli, carrying the gyrA and tet(O) genes, exhibited simultaneous resistance to ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, and nalidixic acid. Results from this study can help identify important shifts in gut microbial community dynamics and Campylobacter prevalence associated with antibiotic administration within commercial poultry operations.

Carcass traits, proximate composition, amino acid and fatty acid profiles, and mineral contents of meat from Cherry Valley, Chinese crested, and crossbred ducks

Duck meat is known for its taste and high nutritive value. To preserve local genetic diversity while maintaining commercial viability, we obtained a crossbreed (CB) between high-performing Cherry Valley (CV) and traditional Chinese crested (CC) ducks. We compared carcass traits and meat quality characteristics of CB and parental breeds. Meat from the above ducks at their respective marketable ages was evaluated for proximate composition, amino acid and fatty acid profiles, and selected mineral content. The live weights, carcass weights, and breast muscle percentage of CB were higher than CC but lower than CV; the leg muscle of CB was lower than CV and CC. CB had higher intramuscular fat content than CV; its collagen content was lower than CC but higher than CV in breast and thigh muscles. Additionally, the saturated fatty acid content of CB muscle was lower than CV and higher than CC. CB contained more monounsaturated fatty acids than CV and CC. Zn content was higher in CB breast than CV and CC. CB, obtained by crossing CV and CC, has partial advantages over both the breeds suggesting that these characteristics aligned with standards to breed ducks with high-quality meat.

Combining antimicrobial substances for Campylobacter post harvest mitigation on chicken breast fillet and chicken skin - any synergistic effects?

AIMS

To reduce Campylobacter along the food chain, we investigated the mitigation potential of four antimicrobial compounds against Campylobacter using a new evaluation scheme.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Using the checkerboard method, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of two organic acids (peroxyacetic acid and lactic acid) and two plant extracts (carvacrol and resveratrol) against a C. jejuni and a C. coli field isolate were determined as well as the fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) indices of combined treatment. The lowest MIC values were found for peroxyacetic acid (0.03 mg mL-1) and carvacrol (0.06 mg mL-1). Based on subsequent sensory studies, peroxyacetic acid and carvacrol were selected for challenge tests to quantitatively determine the reducing potential against Campylobacter on chicken meat and chicken skin. Applying peroxyacetic acid significantly reduced Campylobacter counts on chicken skin with maximum reductions of 3.3 log-units (P < .0001), while the combination of peroxyacetic acid and carvacrol resulted in significant reductions of only 0.4 log-units on chicken breast fillet 24 hours after treatment but not thereafter (P = .0192).

CONCLUSIONS

Peroxyacetic acid is suitable as a postharvest intervention measure to reduce Campylobacter concentration on chicken skin without reducing consumer acceptance.

Practical Preventive Considerations for Reducing the Public Health Burden of Poultry-Related Salmonellosis

With poultry products as one of the leading reservoirs for the pathogen, in a typical year in the United States, it is estimated that over one million individuals contract non-typhoidal Salmonella infections. Foodborne outbreaks associated with Salmonella infections in poultry, thus, continue to remain a significant risk to public health. Moreover, the further emergence of antimicrobial resistance among various serovars of Salmonella is an additional public health concern. Feeding-based strategies (such as use of prebiotics, probiotics, and/or phytobiotics as well as essential oils), non-feeding-based strategies (such as use of bacteriophages, vaccinations, and in ovo strategies), omics tools and surveillance for identifying antibiotic-resistance genes, post-harvest application of antimicrobials, and biosecurity measures at poultry facilities are practical interventions that could reduce the public health burden of salmonellosis and antibiotic resistance associated with poultry products. With the escalating consumption of poultry products around the globe, the fate, prevalence, and transmission of Salmonella in agricultural settings and various poultry-processing facilities are major public health challenges demanding integrated control measures throughout the food chain. Implementation of practical preventive measures discussed in the current study could appreciably reduce the public health burden of foodborne salmonellosis associated with poultry products.

Neutral Electrolyzed Water in Chicken Breast-A Preservative Option in Poultry Industry

Chicken is one of the most consumed meats in the world because it is an economical protein source with a low fat content. Its conservation is important to maintain safety along the cold chain. In the present study, the effect of Neutral Electrolyzed Water (NEW) at 55.73 ppm was evaluated on contaminated chicken meat with Salmonella Typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7, which was stored in refrigerated conditions. The present study was carried out to check whether the application of NEW can help to preserve chicken breasts without affecting its sensory characteristics. Chicken quality was measured by analyzing physicochemical properties (pH, color, lactic acid, total volatile basic nitrogen, and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances content) after bactericidal intervention. This work includes a sensory study to determine if its use affects the organoleptic properties of the meat. The results showed that in the in vitro assay, NEW and NaClO, achieved bacterial count reductions of >6.27 and 5.14 Log10 CFU for E. coli and Salmonella Typhimurium, respectively, even though, in the in situ challenge, they showed a bacterial decrease of 1.2 and 0.33 Log10 CFU/chicken breast in contaminated chicken breasts with E. coli and Salmonella Typhimurium, respectively, after 8 days of storage, and NaClO treatment did not cause bacterial reduction. Nonetheless, NEW and NaClO did not cause lipid oxidation and nor did they affect lactic acid production, and they also slowed meat decomposition caused by biogenic amines. Sensory results showed that chicken breast characteristics like appearance, smell, and texture were not affected after NEW treatment, and obtained results showed that NEW could be used during chicken meat processing due to the chicken physicochemical stability. However, more studies are still needed.

Advances in enteropathogen control throughout the meat chicken production chain

Enteropathogens, namely Salmonella and Campylobacter, are a concern in global public health and have been attributed in numerous risk assessments to a poultry source. During the last decade, a large body of research addressing this problem has been published. The literature reviewed contains review articles on certain aspects of poultry production chain; however, in the past decade there has not been a review on the entire chain-farm to fork-of poultry production. For this review, a pool of 514 articles were selected for relevance via a systematic screening process (from >7500 original search articles). These studies identified a diversity of management and intervention strategies for the elimination or reduction of enteropathogens in poultry production. Many studies were laboratory or limited field trials with implementation in true commercial operations being problematic. Entities considering using commercial antienteropathogen products and interventions are advised to perform an internal validation and fit-for-purpose trial as Salmonella and Campylobacter serovars and biovars may have regional diversity. Future research should focus on nonchemical application within the processing plant and how a combination of synergisticinterventions through the production chain may contribute to reducing the overall carcass burden of enteropathogens, coupled with increased consumer education on safe handling and cooking of poultry.

Applications of water activated by ozone, electrolysis, or gas plasma for microbial decontamination of raw and processed meat

A raw or processed meat product can be a breeding ground for spoilage bacteria (Enterobacteriaceae, Lactobacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., etc.). Failure of decontamination results in food quality loss and foodborne illnesses caused by pathogens such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes. Often, meat processors decontaminate the carcass using cheap chemicals or artificial antimicrobial agents not listed on the ingredient list, which is discouraged by health-conscious consumers. Foods with clean labels became more popular during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led consumers to choose healthier ingredients. Novel methods of controlling or improving meat safety are constantly being discovered. This review focuses on novel means of electrochemically activate water that is being investigated as a sanitizing agent for carcasses and processing area decontamination during production or at the end. Water can be activated by using non-thermal techniques such as ozonation, electrolysis, and cold plasma technologies. Recent studies showed that these activated liquids are powerful tools for reducing microbial activity in raw and processed meat. For instance, plasma-activated water can be used to enhance microbiological safety and avoid the negative effects of direct gaseous plasma on the organoleptic aspects of food products. In addition, electrolyzed water technology offers hurdle enhancement by combining with non-thermal strategies that have great potential. Ozonation is another way of activating water which provides a very convenient way to control microbiological safety and finds several recent applications as aqueous ozone for meat decontamination. These solutions are highly reactive and convenient for non-conventional applications in the meat industry related to food safety because of their antimicrobial or antiviral impact. The present review highlights the efficacy of activated-water decontamination of raw and processed meat via non-thermal solutions.

Spoilage Bacteria Counts on Broiler Meat at Different Stages of Commercial Poultry Processing Plants That Use Peracetic Acid

In poultry processing, spoilage microbes are persistent microorganisms, which affect the quality of broiler meat. Peracetic acid (PAA) is the most common antimicrobial used by commercial processing plants, which can reduce the prevalence of these microbes. The goal of this study was to determine the concentrations of aerobic bacteria, coliforms, lactic acid bacteria, and Pseudomonas on broiler meat in processing plants that use peracetic acid in various concentrations as the primary antimicrobial. Samples were collected from three processing plants at five processing steps: post-pick (defeathering), pre-chill, post-chill, mechanically deboned meat (MDM), and drumsticks. Samples were rinsed in buffered peptone water for bacteria isolation. Over six log CFU/sample of aerobic plate counts (APC), lactic acid bacteria, and coliforms were detected on post-pick samples. All spoilage bacteria were reduced to nondetectable levels on post-chill samples (p < 0.001). However, the presence of all bacteria on mechanically deboned meat (MDM) samples indicated varying degrees of cross contamination from post-chill and MDM samples. These results suggest PAA effectively reduces spoilage microbes in chilling applications irrespective of differences in PAA concentrations. However, due to the levels of spoilage microbes detected in MDM, it may be worth investigating the potential interventions for this stage of processing.

Consequences of Implementing Neutralizing Buffered Peptone Water in Commercial Poultry Processing on the Microbiota of Whole Bird Carcass Rinses and the Subsequent Microbiological Analyses

In 2016, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) established guidelines which modified the Buffered Peptone Water (BPW) rinsate material to include additional compounds that would better neutralize residual processing aids and allow for better recovery of sublethal injured Salmonella spp. cells. While the added compounds improved the recovery of Salmonella spp., specific data to understand how the new rinse agent, neutralizing Buffered Peptone Water (nBPW), impacts the recovery of other microorganisms such as Campylobacter spp. and indicator microorganisms are lacking. Therefore, this study evaluated the impact of rinse solutions (BPW or nBPW) used in Whole Bird Carcass rinsate (WBCR) collections on the subsequent microbiome and downstream culturing methodologies. Carcasses exiting a finishing chiller were rinsed in 400 ml of BPW or nBPW. Resulting rinsates were analyzed for Enterobacteriaceae (EB), Salmonella, and Campylobacter spp. prevalence and total aerobic bacteria (APC) and EB load. The 16S rDNA of the rinsates and the matrices collected from applied microbiological analyses were sequenced on an Illumina MiSeq^®. Log₁₀-transformed counts were analyzed in JMP 15 using ANOVA with means separated using Tukey’s HSD, and prevalence data were analyzed using Pearson’s χ² (P ≤ 0.05). Diversity and microbiota compositions (ANCOM) were analyzed in QIIME 2.2019.7 (P ≤ 0.05; Q ≤ 0.05). There was an effect of rinsate type on the APC load and Campylobacter spp. prevalence (P < 0.05), but not the quantity or prevalence of EB or Salmonella spp. prevalence. There were differences between the microbial diversity of the two rinsate types and downstream analyses (P < 0.05). Additionally, several taxa, including Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Aeromonas, Acinetobacter, Clostridium, Enterococcaceae, Burkholderiaceae, and Staphylococcaceae, were differentially abundant in paired populations. Therefore, the rinse buffer used in a WBCR collection causes proportional shifts in the microbiota, which can lead to differences in results obtained from cultured microbial populations.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of processing stages and interventions for controlling Campylobacter contamination during broiler chicken processing

Systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to quantify the effects of processing stages and interventions on the prevalence and concentration of Campylobacter on broiler carcasses. To comprehensively capture relevant evidence, six databases were searched using the keywords "Campylobacter" and "broiler chicken." The literature search yielded 10,450 unique citations, and after applying predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria, 72 and 53 relevant citations were included in meta-analyses for processing stages and interventions, respectively. As the two primary outcomes, log reduction and prevalence changes were estimated for each stage or intervention using a random-effects meta-analysis approach whenever possible. The outcome-level quality assessment was conducted following the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. The analysis revealed that scalding and chilling majorly reduces the prevalence and concentration of Campylobacter. Immersion chilling reduces the concentration regardless of chemical additives, but its effect on prevalence is not conclusive. The effects of carcass washing applications remain uncertain due to the inconsistency and imprecision of both outcomes. Defeathering and evisceration were identified as stages that can increase both prevalence and concentration. Both chemical and physical processing interventions provide limited efficacy in concentration and prevalence reduction. Major limitations of the review were inconsistency and imprecision at the outcome level and reporting issues and data gaps at the study level. The results are expected to inform quantitative microbial risk assessment model development and support evidence-based decision-making.

Application of Peroxyacetic Acid for Decontamination of Raw Poultry Products and Comparison to Other Commonly Used Chemical Antimicrobial Interventions: A Review

ABSTRACT

Poultry remains one of the top food commodities responsible for foodborne illness in the United States, despite poultry industry efforts since the inception of hazard analysis and critical control point to reduce the burden of foodborne illness implicating poultry products. The appropriate use of antimicrobial compounds during processing of raw poultry can help minimize this risk. Currently, peroxyacetic acid (PAA) is the most popular antimicrobial in the poultry industry, displacing chlorine compounds and others. The aim of this review was to compare the effectiveness of PAA to that of other antimicrobials for the decontamination of raw poultry carcasses and parts. Twenty-six articles were found that compared PAA with over 20 different antimicrobials, applied as spray or immersion treatments for different exposure times and at different concentrations. The most common comparisons were to chlorine compounds (17 articles), to lactic acid compounds (five articles), and to cetylpyridinium chloride (six articles). Studies measured effectiveness by reductions in native flora or inoculated bacteria, usually Salmonella or Campylobacter. PAA was found to be more effective than chlorine under most conditions studied. Effectiveness of PAA was higher than or comparable to that of lactic acid compounds and cetylpyridinium chloride depending on product and treatment conditions. Overall, the results of primary literature studies support the popularity of PAA as an effective intervention against pathogenic bacteria during poultry processing.

HIGHLIGHTS

On-site generated peroxy acetic acid (PAA) technology reduces Salmonella and Campylobacter on chicken wings

Peroxyacetic acid (PAA) is a widely used antimicrobial during poultry processing that requires to be shipped in a concentrated solution, stored under hazardous conditions and diluted for use. On-site PAA generation using nonhazardous ingredients can help eliminate transportation and storage issues at the processing plant and reduce the risk of occupational hazards. The objective of the proposed research was to 1) evaluate the efficacy of on-site generated PAA in reducing Salmonella and Campylobacter populations compared to the commercially available PAA stock solutions and 2) to perform color measurements to evaluate any deviations between treatments. PAA solutions at 50 and 100 ppm were used for treating the chicken wings. Fresh chicken wings (0.45 kg) were inoculated with a cocktail of nalidixic acid resistant Salmonella Typhimurium (STNR) and gentamicin resistant Campylobacter coli (CCGR) and immersed in PAA solutions (50 and 100 ppm) adjusted to pH 8.5 and 10.0 or 10.5, for either 10 s or 60 min. Treated chicken wings were rinsed for 1 min in chilled BPW (100 mL), serially diluted and plated on APC Petrifilm for Salmonella, spread plated on Campy-cefex agar supplemented with gentamicin (200 ppm) for Campylobacter enumeration. Immersion of chicken wings in 100 ppm PAA for 60 min irrespective of pH levels and PAA solutions resulted in greater microbial reductions (P < 0.05) of Salmonella by 1.68 and 1.42 log CFU/mL for SaniDate, 1.82 and 1.83 log CFU/mL for OxyFusion (on-site generated). For the same treatments, Campylobacter reductions of 1.59 and 1.36 log CFU/mL for SaniDate, 1.63 and 1.71 log CFU/mL for OxyFusion were achieved. The antimicrobial efficiency of PAA was not affected by pH and type of PAA solution. No significant differences (P > 0.05) in color were observed between treatments and controls. On-site generated PAA provides poultry processors an effective, safer, and less hazardous alternative to commercially available PAA solutions, ensuring poultry workers’ health and safety.

Evaluation of Immersion and Spray Applications of Antimicrobial Treatments for Reduction of Campylobacter jejuni on Chicken Wings

The decontamination efficacy of antimicrobial treatments against Campylobacter jejuni on chicken wings was evaluated. Chicken wings surface-inoculated with C. jejuni (3.9 log colony-forming units [CFU]/mL) were left untreated (control) or were treated by immersion (5 s) or in a spray cabinet (4 s) with water, a sulfuric acid and sodium sulfate blend (SSS; pH 1.2), formic acid (1.5%), peroxyacetic acid (PAA; 550 ppm), or PAA (550 ppm) that was pH-adjusted (acidified) with SSS (pH 1.2) or formic acid (1.5%). All evaluated immersion and spray chemical treatments effectively (p < 0.05) lowered C. jejuni populations on chicken wings. Spray application of chemical treatments resulted in immediate pathogen reductions ranging from 0.5 to 1.2 log CFU/mL, whereas their application by immersion lowered initial pathogen levels by 1.7 to 2.2 log CFU/mL. The PAA and acidified PAA treatments were equally (p ≥ 0.05) effective at reducing initial C. jejuni populations, however, following a 24 h refrigerated (4 °C) storage period, wings treated with acidified PAA had lower (p < 0.05) pathogen levels than samples that had been treated with PAA that was not acidified. Findings of this study should be useful to the poultry industry in its efforts to control Campylobacter contamination on chicken parts.

Impact of a Combination of UV-C Irradiation and Peracetic Acid Spray Treatment on Brochothrix thermosphacta and Yersinia enterocolitica Contaminated Pork

Efficient ways of decontamination are needed to minimize the risk of infections with Yersinia (Y.) enterocolitica, which causes gastrointestinal diseases in humans, and to reduce the numbers of Brochothrix (B.) thermosphacta to extend the shelf-life of meat. While many studies have focused on a single treatment of peracetic acid (PAA) or UV-C-irradiation, there are no studies about a combined treatment on meat. Therefore, in the present study, pork was inoculated with either Y. enterocolitica or B. thermosphacta, and was treated with a combination of 2040 mJ/cm² UV-C irradiation followed by a 2000 ppm PAA spray treatment (30 s). Samples were packed under modified atmosphere and stored for 1, 7, or 14 days. The samples were examined for Y. enterocolitica and B. thermosphacta content, chemical and sensory effects, and meat quality parameters. For Y. enterocolitica, a significant reduction of up to 2.16 log₁₀ cfu/cm² meat and for B. thermosphacta, up to 2.37 log₁₀ cfu/cm² meat was seen on day 14 after UV-C/PAA treatment compared to the untreated controls.

Prevalence of Salmonella enterica on poultry processing equipment after completion of sanitization procedures

Salmonella is a poultry-borne pathogen that causes illness throughout the world. Consequently, it is critical to control Salmonella during the process of converting broilers to poultry meat. Sanitization of a poultry processing facility, including processing equipment, is a crucial control measure that is utilized by poultry integrators. However, prevalence of Salmonella on equipment after sanitization and its potential risk to food safety has not been evaluated thoroughly. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the persistence of Salmonella on poultry processing equipment before and following cleaning and sanitization procedure. A total of 15 locations within 6 commercial processing plants were sampled at 3 time points: (A) after processing; (B) after cleaning; and (C) after sanitization, on 3 separate visits for a total of 135 samples per plant. Salmonella-positive isolates were recovered from samples using the United States Department of Agriculture MLG 4.09 conventional method. Presumptive Salmonella colonies were subjected to biochemical tests for confirmation. Salmonella isolates recovered after sanitization were serotyped and tested for the presence of specific virulence genes. A completely randomized design with a 6 × 3 × 15 factorial arrangement was utilized to analyze the results for Salmonella prevalence between processing plants. Means were separated using Fishers protected least significant difference when P ≤ 0.05. For Salmonella prevalence between processing plants, differences (P < 0.0001) were observed in the 6 plants tested where the maximum and minimum prevalence was 29.6 and 7.4%, respectively. As expected, there was a difference (P < 0.0001) in the recovery of Salmonella because of sampling time. Salmonella prevalence at time A (36%) was significantly higher, whereas there was no difference between time B (12%) and C (9%). There was a location effect (P < 0.0001) for the prevalence of Salmonella with the head puller, picker, cropper, and scalder having a significantly higher prevalence when compared with several other locations. At sampling time C, a trend toward a difference (P = 0.0899) was observed for Salmonella prevalence between the 6 plants, whereas significant differences were observed because of location (P = 0.0031). Five prominent Salmonella enterica serovars were identified, including Kentucky, Schwarzengrund, Enteritidis, Liverpool, and Typhimurium with S. Kentucky being the most prevalent. PCR analysis of 8 Salmonella virulence genes showed that the invA, sipB, spiA, sseC, and fimA were detected in all isolates, whereas genes carried on plasmids and/or fimbriae varied remarkably among all isolates. This study established Salmonella prevalence and persistence in poultry processing facilities after antimicrobial application through sanitization procedures which could result in contamination of poultry carcasses and food safety risks because of poultry meat.

Antimicrobial interventions to reduce Salmonella and Campylobacter populations and improve shelf life of quail carcasses

Quail (Coturnix japonica) is processed and marketed as fresh meat, with limited shelf life. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobial interventions during slaughter on reducing Salmonella and Campylobacter contamination and to determine the microbiological shelf life of quail during refrigerated (4°C) storage. Three antimicrobials, peracetic acid (400 ppm; PAA), Citrilow (pH 1.2), and Cecure (cetylpyridinium chloride [CPC], 450 ppm), along with a water and no-treatment control were evaluated. Quail carcasses (n = 75) were inoculated with a cocktail of nalidixic acid–resistant Salmonella Typhimurium and gentamicin-resistant Campylobacter coli. After 30 min of attachment time, quail carcasses were submerged in each antimicrobial solution for 20 s with air agitation. Noninoculated quail carcasses (n = 25) were similarly treated, packaged, and stored under refrigeration (4°C). Aerobic plate counts (APC), psychrotroph counts (PC), Enterobacteriaceae counts (ENT), total coliform counts (TCC), and Escherichia coli counts on quail carcasses were determined on 1, 4, 7, and 10 d. Salmonella and Campylobacter populations were determined by plating on Petrifilm APC supplemented with 200-ppm nalidixic acid and Campy Cefex agar supplemented with 200-ppm gentamycin, respectively. No significant reductions in (P > 0.01 log cfu/mL) in APC, PC, ENT, TCC, and E. coli counts were observed on carcasses submerged in water. However, treatments with PAA, Citrilow, and CPC significantly reduced (P ≤ 0.05) Salmonella and Campylobacter coli contamination. Citrilow showed greater (P ≤ 0.05) reduction in Salmonella and Campylobacter population (1.90 and 3.82 log cfu/mL reduction, respectively) to PAA and CPC. Greater (P ≤ 0.05) reductions in APC, PC, ENT, TCC, and E. coli counts (2.22, 1.26, 1.47, 1.52, and 1.59 log cfu/mL, respectively) were obtained with the application of CPC. Application of antimicrobial interventions resulted in a reduction in Campylobacter and Salmonella, APC, PC, and ENT populations after treatments (day 0) and throughout the storage period (day 10). Use of antimicrobial interventions after slaughter can improve the microbiological safety and shelf life of quail.

Evaluating the efficacy of peracetic acid on Salmonella and Campylobacter on chicken wings at various pH levels

Peracetic acid (PAA) is commonly used as an antimicrobial aid during poultry processing to reduce the pathogen load on poultry and poultry products. However, limited research is available on the effects of pH on the efficacy of PAA against Salmonella and Campylobacter. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of PAA in reducing Salmonella and Campylobacter populations on chicken wings adjusted to various pH levels. Chicken wings (0.454 kg each) were inoculated with nalidixic acid-resistant (200 ppm) Salmonella Typhimurium (∼7 log₁₀ cfu/mL) and gentamicin-resistant (200 ppm) Campylobacter coli (∼6-7 log₁₀ cfu/mL). Inoculated wings were treated with PAA by immersion for 10 s or 60 min at 4°C to 6°C. The treatments included 50 ppm (0.005%) and 500 ppm (0.05%) PAA at 3 pH levels (8.2, 10, and 11) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH, pH 11). Surviving populations of Salmonella and Campylobacter were determined by sampling the chicken wings after treatments. Irrespective of concentration and pH of PAA, higher (P ≤ 0.05) reductions of Salmonella were observed subsequent to 60 min exposure as compared with 10 s of immersion. Immersion time and the higher pH of antimicrobial solutions did not affect (P > 0.05) the antimicrobial efficacy of PAA (50 or 500 ppm) against Campylobacter. The antimicrobial efficacy of PAA was not affected by pH of the antimicrobial solutions, and longer exposure time and higher PAA concentrations improve the antimicrobial efficacy.

Efficacy of peroxy acetic acid in reducing Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. populations on chicken breast fillets

Poultry processors use antimicrobials to reduce the risk of pathogens on poultry and poultry products. The efficacy of selective and nonselective plating media to enumerate injured Salmonella (selective media-brilliant green sulfa agar and Petrifilm Enterobacteriaceae Plate Count; nonselective media-tryptic soy agar and Petrifilm Aerobic Plate Count) and Campylobacter (selective medium-Campy cefex agar and nonselective medium-Brucella agar) populations and the efficacy of peroxy acetic acid (PAA) to reduce Salmonella and Campylobacter populations on chicken breast fillets were evaluated. All plating media for Salmonella and Campylobacter contained nalidixic acid (200 ppm) or gentamycin (200 ppm), respectively. Breast fillets were sprayed or immersed in PAA (500 ppm) for 10 min for evaluation of the plating media. Breast fillets inoculated with a mixed Salmonella and Campylobacter cocktail were sprayed (5 or 10 s) or immersed (4-30 s) in PAA (100, 400, 500, or 1,000 ppm) for evaluation of PAA efficacy. Salmonella populations were higher (P ≤ 0.05) when plated on nonselective media compared with the selective media for the non-PAA treated fillets, although the differences in populations were low (<0.32 log CFU/mL). For both the microorganisms, populations on PAA treated (immersion or spray) fillets were similar when enumerated on nonselective or selective media within each treatment (PAA immersion or spray). Both immersion and spray applications reduced (P ≤ 0.05) the Salmonella and Campylobacter populations compared with the control. Increasing the PAA concentration to 250, 500, and 1,000 ppm resulted in greater reductions (P ≤ 0.05) in Salmonella and Campylobacter populations. Immersion of the inoculated breast fillets in 1,000 ppm PAA solution for 30 s resulted in Salmonella and Campylobacter population reductions of 1.92 and 1.87 log CFU/mL, respectively. Method of antimicrobial application (immersion and spray) did not affect the reductions in Salmonella and Campylobacter populations. Either immersion or spray application can be used to improve microbial safety of chicken breast fillets in a poultry processing plant.

Peracetic acid reduces Campylobacter spp. numbers and total viable counts on broiler breast muscle and drumstick skins during modified atmosphere package storage

Constant high case numbers of human campylobacteriosis over the last few years show the necessity of efficient strategies to reduce the number of diseases. The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness of peracetic acid (PAA) as spray application to reduce Campylobacter spp. on chicken meat. For this, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of 25 Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli isolates were determined. All tested isolates had MICs ranging between 2 to 8 ppm PAA, while MBCs were 1- to 4-fold higher than the MIC. An additional time-kill test, using strain C. jejuni DSM 4688, revealed that after an incubation time of 2 h in medium, supplemented with 1-fold the MIC (4 ppm) of PAA, no surviving C. jejuni cells were detectable. For evaluation of a spraying treatment, C. jejuni DSM 4688 (108 cfu/mL) inoculated chicken drumsticks and native skin-on breast fillets were treated for 30 s with PAA of 1,200 ppm concentration. Samples were packaged in modified atmosphere packages and stored at 4°C until further analysis. On day 1, 6, and 12, the fillets were used for microbial (total viable count), sensory, and physicochemical (color, pH, electrical conductivity) analysis and meat samples for myoglobin redox forms and antioxidant activity were taken. A significant reduction of the total viable counts was seen on day 6 and 12 in comparison to the water control and to the untreated fillets, respectively. Campylobacter jejuni counts on the drumsticks were significantly reduced by PAA application on day 6 and 12 in comparison to the water treatment. Except on day 12, where PAA-treated fillets showed a slightly higher percentage of oxymyoglobin, no significant differences could be found in the sensory and physicochemical measurements as well as in myoglobin and antioxidant activity. Spray application of 1,200 ppm PAA to Campylobacter-contaminated chicken samples led to a significant reduction up to 1.1 log10 of Campylobacter spp. counts without influencing chemical and sensory meat quality parameters.

The Effect of Sanitizers on Microbial Levels of Chicken Meat Collected from Commercial Processing Plants

Chicken meat can potentially become contaminated with bacteria at the processing plant. In Australia, there is currently a lack of knowledge on the parameters and indications of use of non-chlorine based treatments in the chicken meat processing plants. Chlorine is widely used as a sanitizer in Australian chicken meat processing plants but due to occupational health and safety concerns and consumer perception, there is a need to identify alternative sanitizers. This study aimed to assess the efficacy of four different sanitizers in reducing the microbial load from naturally contaminated chicken meat carcasses collected from the processing plants in South Australia. There was a significant variation in a load of Campylobacter and total viable count (TVC) between samples collected from two different processing plants and within carcass batches collected from the same plant that was tested during the study. All sanitizers generally reduced the load of Campylobacter on chicken meat carcasses. Treatment with acidified sodium chlorite significantly reduced the level of Salmonella enterica serovars at all temperatures tested during this study. These findings are helpful to the industry for selection of the appropriate sanitizers. Findings are also useful for the regulatory authorities in Australia for providing approval for the use of sanitizers.

Peracetic acid reduces Campylobacter spp. on turkey skin: Effects of a spray treatment on microbial load, sensory and meat quality during storage

Handling and consumption of Campylobacter-contaminated poultry meat is the most common cause of human campylobacteriosis. While many studies deal with interventions to reduce Campylobacter spp. on chicken carcasses, studies on other poultry species are rare. In the present study, a spray treatment with peracetic acid (PAA) on turkey carcasses was evaluated. For this, parts of breast fillets with skin and Campylobacter (C.) jejuni DSM 4688 (108 cfu/ml) inoculated drumsticks were sprayed for 30 s with PAA (1200 ppm) or water as control solution. Samples were packaged under modified atmosphere and stored at 4°C until analysis on day 1, 6 and 12. The breast fillets were used for determination of the total viable count, sensory and meat quality examination as well as myoglobin content and biogenic amines. The drumsticks were used for C. jejuni counts. PAA had a significant effect in reducing total viable counts on all days by up to 1.2 log10 compared to the untreated control. Treatment with water alone showed no effect. C. jejuni counts were significantly reduced by PAA (0.9-1.3 log10), while water achieved a 0.5 log10 reduction on C. jejuni counts on day 1. No differences in sensory, pH, electrical conductivity and myoglobin content could be found. The skin of the PAA treated fillets had lower redness values than the water control on day 1, whereas on day 12 parts of the water treated muscles were lighter than the untreated control. A lower putrescine content of the water sprayed fillets in comparison to the control sample on day 12 was the only significant difference concerning the biogenic amines. Results from this study indicate that a spray treatment with 1200 ppm PAA would be a useful measure to lower the Campylobacter spp. counts on turkey carcasses without having a negative influence on product quality.

Understanding Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Profiles of Salmonella Biofilm and Planktonic Bacteria Challenged with Disinfectants Commonly Used During Poultry Processing

Foodborne pathogens such as Salmonella that survive cleaning and disinfection during poultry processing are a public health concern because pathogens that survive disinfectants have greater potential to exhibit resistance to antibiotics and disinfectants after their initial disinfectant challenge. While the mechanisms conferring antimicrobial resistance (AMR) after exposure to disinfectants is complex, understanding the effects of disinfectants on Salmonella in both their planktonic and biofilm states is becoming increasingly important, as AMR and disinfectant tolerant bacteria are becoming more prevalent in the food chain. This review examines the modes of action of various types of disinfectants commonly used during poultry processing (quaternary ammonium, organic acids, chlorine, alkaline detergents) and the mechanisms that may confer tolerance to disinfectants and cross-protection to antibiotics. The goal of this review article is to characterize the AMR profiles of Salmonella in both their planktonic and biofilm state that have been challenged with hexadecylpyridinium chloride (HDP), peracetic acid (PAA), sodium hypochlorite (SHY) and trisodium phosphate (TSP) in order to understand the risk of these disinfectants inducing AMR in surviving bacteria that may enter the food chain.

Atmospheric Cold Plasma and Peracetic Acid-Based Hurdle Intervention To Reduce Salmonella on Raw Poultry Meat

HIGHLIGHTS

Atmospheric cold plasma and peracetic acid-based hurdle approach for safety of poultry products was evaluated. Study demonstrates a significant synergetic approach to reducing Salmonella on raw poultry. Hurdle approach shows promising bacterial reduction but requires further optimization.