A Multiplex PCR Method for Simultaneous Detection of Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus and Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale

To date, many fluorescence- and gel-based multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays have been developed for the simultaneous detection of multiple infectious agents of respiratory disease in poultry. However, PCR assays are not available for other important emerging respiratory bacteria, such as Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT). We aimed to fill this gap by establishing a new duplex PCR method for the simultaneous detection of infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) and ORT. Multiplex primer design software was used to select the compatible multiplex primer pairs. It was determined that an annealing temperature of 65 °C and an initial concentration of 2.5 pmol/µL for each primer set were the most suitable conditions for multiplex PCR. The assay was confirmed to be specific, as it only detected the target pathogens, even in the presence of six non-target agents. The limit of detection was up to 10³ copies/µL of template DNA for both ILTV and ORT. In the screening of 304 field samples, 23, 88, and 44 were positive for both ILTV and ORT, solely for ILTV, and solely ORT, respectively.

Molecular and genetic detection of infectious laryngeotrachitis disease virus in broiler farms after a disease outbreak in Egypt

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is a viral respiratory illness in poultry that causes massive financial losses. This research aimed to isolate and identify the ILT virus in suspected outbreaks of broiler flocks in Egypt during 2020-2021, besides investigating its genetic link with other circulating strains. Real-time-PCR was used to test 57 samples taken from unvaccinated broiler farms. Ten samples are positive for ILTV, and the virus is being isolated in SPF chicken embryos. The Sanger sequencing was used to conduct (partial) sequencing of the infected cell protein4 gene (ICP4) for eight isolates. Phylogenetic analysis conducted Maximum Likelihood, comparative sequencing analysis of ICP4 of strains under study with vaccination ILT reference strains reveled that all isolates were clustered into two major groups. The (OM291843and OM291846) clustered together with the chicken embryo origin vaccine strains (IV and V group). The remaining six strains belong to the TCO vaccine(I, II and III group). The total sequence similarity between the strains under study and the various Egyptian strains varied from (97 to 100%) while the similarity with TCO or chicken embryo origin -vaccine strains ranged from (95to 100%). There were no deletions detected in the 272-283-bp region of the ICP4 gene. Detection of arginine to methionine substitutions at position 180 (R180M) and change of Serine to Asparagine at position 227 (S227N) in the (OM291843 and OM291846) which were previously described in chicken embryo origin -vaccine strains. This reveals that field strains may have evolved from vaccine strains, notably identification of non-synonymous substitutions which might be linked to the virulence strains' attenuation. Finally, independent of geographical distribution, both chicken embryo origin-vaccine-like and TCO-Vaccine-like virus strains were circulating in Egyptian non-vaccinated broiler flocks in 2020 and 2021. Despite their genetic differences, both viruses caused significant illnesses in the field.

A Systematic Review on Viruses in Mass-Reared Edible Insect Species

Edible insects are expected to become an important nutrient source for animals and humans in the Western world in the near future. Only a few studies on viruses in edible insects with potential for industrial rearing have been published and concern only some edible insect species. Viral pathogens that can infect insects could be non-pathogenic, or pathogenic to the insects themselves, or to humans and animals. The objective of this systematic review is to provide an overview of the viruses detected in edible insects currently considered for use in food and/or feed in the European Union or appropriate for mass rearing, and to collect information on clinical symptoms in insects and on the vector role of insects themselves. Many different virus species have been detected in edible insect species showing promise for mass production systems. These viruses could be a risk for mass insect rearing systems causing acute high mortality, a drastic decline in growth in juvenile stages and in the reproductive performance of adults. Furthermore, some viruses could pose a risk to human and animal health where insects are used for food and feed.

Transmission of infectious laryngotracheitis virus vaccine and field strains: the role of degree of contact and transmission by whole blood, plasma and poultry dust

Understanding the mechanisms of transmission of infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) is critical to proper control as both vaccine and wild-type strains circulate within chicken flocks with potential adverse consequences. The relative efficiency of transmission by direct contact between chickens and airborne transmission has not been investigated. Furthermore, relatively high levels of ILTV DNA have been detected in poultry dust and blood but the infectivity of these is unknown. In this study, comparison of in-contact and airborne transmission of two vaccine and one field strain of ILTV revealed that all transmitted to 100% of in-contact birds by 6 days post-exposure (dpe). Airborne transmission without contact resulted in 100% transmission by 14 and 17 dpe for the wild-type and Serva vaccine virus but only 27% transmission by 21 dpe for the A20 vaccine virus. The infectivity of dust or extracts of dust and blood or plasma from infected chickens at various stages of infection was assessed by inoculation into susceptible chickens. There was no transmission by any of these materials. In conclusion, direct contact facilitated efficient ILTV transmission but the virus was unable to be transmitted by dust from infected chickens suggestive of a limited role in the epidemiology of ILTV.

Infectious laryngotracheitis: Etiology, epidemiology, pathobiology, and advances in diagnosis and control - a comprehensive review

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is a highly contagious upper respiratory tract disease of chicken caused by a Gallid herpesvirus 1 (GaHV-1) belonging to the genus Iltovirus, and subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae within Herpesviridae family. The disease is characterized by conjunctivitis, sinusitis, oculo-nasal discharge, respiratory distress, bloody mucus, swollen orbital sinuses, high morbidity, considerable mortality and decreased egg production. It is well established in highly dense poultry producing areas of the world due to characteristic latency and carrier status of the virus. Co-infections with other respiratory pathogens and environmental factors adversely affect the respiratory system and prolong the course of the disease. Latently infected chickens are the primary source of ILT virus (ILTV) outbreaks irrespective of vaccination. Apart from conventional diagnostic methods including isolation and identification of ILTV, serological detection, advanced biotechnological tools such as PCR, quantitative real-time PCR, next generation sequencing, and others are being used in accurate diagnosis and epidemiological studies of ILTV. Vaccination is followed with the use of conventional vaccines including modified live attenuated ILTV vaccines, and advanced recombinant vector vaccines expressing different ILTV glycoproteins, but still these candidates frequently fail to reduce challenge virus shedding. Some herbal components have proved to be beneficial in reducing the severity of the clinical disease. The present review discusses ILT with respect to its current status, virus characteristics, epidemiology, transmission, pathobiology, and advances in diagnosis, vaccination and control strategies to counter this important disease of poultry.

Pathogenic and Transmission Potential of Wildtype and Chicken Embryo Origin (CEO) Vaccine Revertant Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an infectious upper respiratory tract disease that impacts the poultry industry worldwide. ILT is caused by an alphaherpesvirus commonly referred to as infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV). Vaccination with live attenuated vaccines is practiced regularly for the control of ILT. However, extensive and improper use of live attenuated vaccines is related to vaccine viruses reverting to virulence. An increase in mortality and pathogenicity has been attributed to these vaccine revertant viruses. Recent studies characterized Canadian ILTV strains originating from ILT outbreaks as related to live attenuated vaccine virus revertants. However, information is scarce on the pathogenicity and transmission potential of these Canadian isolates. Hence, in this study, the pathogenicity and transmission potential of two wildtype ILTVs and a chicken embryo origin (CEO) vaccine revertant ILTV of Canadian origin were evaluated. To this end, 3-week-old specific pathogen-free chickens were experimentally infected with each of the ILTV isolates and compared to uninfected controls. Additionally, naïve chickens were exposed to the experimentally infected chickens to mimic naturally occurring infection. Pathogenicity of each of these ILTV isolates was evaluated by the severity of clinical signs, weight loss, mortality, and lesions observed at the necropsy. The transmission potential was evaluated by quantification of ILTV genome loads in oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs and tissue samples of the experimentally infected and contact-exposed chickens, as well as in the capacity to produce ILT in contact-exposed chickens. We observed that the CEO vaccine revertant ILTV isolate induced severe disease in comparison to the two wildtype ILTV isolates used in this study. According to ILTV genome load data, CEO vaccine revertant ILTV isolate was successfully transmitted to naïve contact-exposed chickens in comparison to the tested wildtype ILTV isolates. Overall, the Canadian origin CEO vaccine revertant ILTV isolate possesses higher virulence, and dissemination potential, when compared to the wildtype ILTV isolates used in this study. These findings have serious implications in ILT control in chickens.

Analysis of Whole-Genome Sequences of Infectious laryngotracheitis Virus Isolates from Poultry Flocks in Canada: Evidence of Recombination

Infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) is a herpes virus that causes an acute respiratory disease of poultry known as infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT). Chicken embryo origin (CEO) and tissue culture origin (TCO) live attenuated vaccines are routinely used for the control of ILT. However, vaccine virus is known to revert to virulence, and it has been recently shown that ILT field viral strains can undergo recombination with vaccinal ILTV and such recombinant ILT viruses possess greater transmission and pathogenicity potential. Based on complete or partial genes of the ILTV genome, few studies genotyped ILTV strains circulating in Canada, and so far, information is scarce on whole-genome sequencing or the presence of recombination in Canadian ILTV isolates. The objective of this study was to genetically characterize the 14 ILTV isolates that originated from three provinces in Canada (Alberta, British Columbia and Quebec). To this end, a phylogenetic analysis of 50 ILTV complete genome sequences, including 14 sequences of Canadian origin, was carried out. Additional phylogenetic analysis of the unique long, unique short and inverted repeat regions of the ILTV genome was also performed. We observed that 71%, 21% and 7% of the ILTV isolates were categorized as CEO revertant, wild-type and TCO vaccine-related, respectively. The sequences were also analyzed for potential recombination events, which included evidence in the British Columbia ILTV isolate. This event involved two ILTV vaccine (CEO) strains as parental strains. Recombination analysis also identified that one ILTV isolate from Alberta as a potential parental strain for a United States origin ILTV isolate. The positions of the possible recombination breakpoints were identified. These results indicate that the ILTV wild-type strains can recombine with vaccinal strains complicating vaccine-mediated control of ILT. Further studies on the pathogenicity of these ILTV strains, including the recombinant ILTV isolate are currently ongoing.

A multiplex real-time RT-PCR for simultaneous detection of four most common avian respiratory viruses

A one-step multiplex real-time reverse transcription-PCR (rRT-PCR) assay was developed for simultaneous detection and quantification of four avian respiratory viruses: avian influenza virus (AIV), infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV). In comparison with the singleplex rRT-PCR, the specificity, the sensitivity and the reproducibility of the new assay were evaluated and validated using 70 clinical samples. The optimal cutoff point, the corresponding limit of quantification (LoQ) and the limit of detection (LoD) were statistical established based on receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. The results showed that the multiplex assay presents higher sensitivity and specificity. Correlation coefficients (R²) and amplification efficiencies (E) of all singleplex and multiplex rRT-PCR reactions are within the acceptable range. The 95% LoDs of multiplex assay were in the range [3-19] copies genomic/ µl, and its corresponding cutoff cycles were in the range [34.16-36.59]. No competitive inhibition for the detection of the four targets and no specific amplification or cross reactivity with other tested viruses was observed. Excellent results were attained in the inter-assay and intra-assay reproducibility evaluation. All identified samples by the multiplex rRT-PCR assay proved to be 100% concordant with the results of the singleplex assays. The results achieved showed that the multiplex assay is very suitable as a routine laboratory test for rapid and specific detection and quantification of co-infections in field samples.

Accurate Detection of Avian Respiratory Viruses by Use of Multiplex PCR-Based Luminex Suspension Microarray Assay

A novel oligonucleotide suspension microarray (Luminex microsphere system) was developed for the rapid detection of avian respiratory viruses of major clinical importance. This test was optimized and validated with 70 clinical samples. The developed tool was accurate for high-throughput detection and differentiation of the most important avian respiratory viruses: avian influenza virus (AIV), Newcastle disease virus (NDV), infection bronchitis virus (IBV), and infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV) in single- and mixed-virus infections. A multiplex reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR), followed by a monoplex or a multiplex Luminex assays, were realized using a Luminex 200 analyzer instrument. The sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility of the multiplex DNA suspension microarray system were evaluated. The results showed no significant differences in the median fluorescence intensity (MFI) value in monoplex and multiplex Luminex assays. The sensitivity and specificity proved to be completely concordant with monoplex real-time RT-PCR. We demonstrated that the multiplex DNA suspension microarray system is an accurate, high-throughput, and relatively simple method for the rapid detection of the main respiratory viruses of poultry.

Genome-Wide Gene Expression Analysis Identifies the Proto-oncogene Tyrosine-Protein Kinase Src as a Crucial Virulence Determinant of Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus in Chicken Cells

Given the side effects of vaccination against infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT), novel strategies for ILT control and therapy are urgently needed. The modulation of host-virus interactions is a promising strategy to combat the virus; however, the interactions between the host and avian ILT herpesvirus (ILTV) are unclear. Using genome-wide transcriptome studies in combination with a bioinformatic analysis, we identified proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src (Src) to be an important modulator of ILTV infection. Src controls the virulence of ILTV and is phosphorylated upon ILTV infection. Functional studies revealed that Src prolongs the survival of host cells by increasing the threshold of virus-induced cell death. Therefore, Src is essential for viral replication in vitro and in ovo but is not required for ILTV-induced cell death. Furthermore, our results identify a positive-feedback loop between Src and the tyrosine kinase focal adhesion kinase (FAK), which is necessary for the phosphorylation of either Src or FAK and is required for Src to modulate ILTV infection. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to identify a key host regulator controlling host-ILTV interactions. We believe that our findings have revealed a new potential therapeutic target for ILT control and therapy.

IMPORTANCE

Despite the extensive administration of live attenuated vaccines starting from the mid-20th century and the administration of recombinant vaccines in recent years, infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) outbreaks due to avian ILT herpesvirus (ILTV) occur worldwide annually. Presently, there are no drugs or control strategies that effectively treat ILT. Targeting of host-virus interactions is considered to be a promising strategy for controlling ILTV infections. However, little is known about the mechanisms governing host-ILTV interactions. The results from our study advance our understanding of host-ILTV interactions on a molecular level and provide experimental evidence that it is possible to control ILT via the manipulation of host-virus interactions.

Detection and isolation of infectious laryngotracheitis virus on a broiler farm after a disease outbreak

A broiler farm in North Alabama suffered a mild infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) outbreak, as determined by clinical disease and PCR. The poultry integrator sought help to control further outbreaks in subsequent flocks. Samples were collected from various areas of the poultry houses on the farm over an 8-wk period. The first sampling was conducted 8 days after the infected farm was depopulated; the second was conducted 2 days prior to subsequent flock placement; and the third was conducted when the new flock was 5 wk of age. Samples were examined for ILT virus (ILTV) DNA by real-time PCR and virus isolation in embryos. The infected houses were cleaned, disinfected, heated, litter composted, and curtains replaced after the first sampling and prior to placement of the next flock. Samples from all periods were positive for ILTV DNA. However, the number of positive samples and crossing point values indicated a decrease in the amount of viral DNA, while virus isolation in embryos was successful only on the first sampling. The subsequent flock was vaccinated against ILTV by in ovo route using a commercial recombinant vaccine. Cleaning and sanitation after the disease outbreak reduced the amount of ILTV on the farm and together with in ovo vaccination of the new flock may have prevented a recurrence of another ILT outbreak.

Prevalence and differentiation of diseases in Maryland backyard flocks

Several epidemiologic surveillance studies have implicated backyard flocks as a reservoir for poultry diseases; however, much debate still exists over the risk these small flocks pose. To evaluate this concern, the prevalence of Newcastle disease (ND), infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT), Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), and Salmonella was determined in 39 Maryland backyard flocks. Serum, tracheal, and cloacal swabs were randomly collected from 262 birds throughout nine counties in Maryland. Through PCR and ELISA analysis, disease prevalence and seroprevalence were determined in flocks, respectively, for the following: ND (0%, 23%); ILT (26%, 77%); MG (3%, 13%); and Salmonella (0%, not done). Vaccine status could not be accurately confirmed. Premise positives were further differentiated and identified by partial nucleotide sequencing. Screening of the 10 ILT premise positives showed that most were live attenuated vaccines: eight matched a tissue culture origin vaccine, one matched a chicken embryo origin (CEO) vaccine, and one was CEO related. The single MG-positive flock, also positive for the CEO-related sequence, was identified as the infectious S6 strain. The prevalence rates for these economically important poultry diseases ranged from none to relatively low, with the vast majority of sampled flocks presenting no clinical signs.

Infectious laryngotracheitis virus in chickens

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an important respiratory disease of chickens and annually causes significant economic losses in the poultry industry world-wide. ILT virus (ILTV) belongs to alphaherpesvirinae and the Gallid herpesvirus 1 species. The transmission of ILTV is via respiratory and ocular routes. Clinical and post-mortem signs of ILT can be separated into two forms according to its virulence. The characteristic of the severe form is bloody mucus in the trachea with high mortality. The mild form causes nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, and reduced weight gain and egg production. Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), nested PCR, real-time PCR, and loop-mediated isothermal amplification were developed to detect ILTV samples from natural or experimentally infected birds. The PCR combined with restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) can separate ILTVs into several genetic groups. These groups can separate vaccine from wild type field viruses. Vaccination is a common method to prevent ILT. However, field isolates and vaccine viruses can establish latent infected carriers. According to PCR-RFLP results, virulent field ILTVs can be derived from modified-live vaccines. Therefore, modified-live vaccine reversion provides a source for ILT outbreaks on chicken farms. Two recently licensed commercial recombinant ILT vaccines are also in use. Other recombinant and gene-deficient vaccine candidates are in the developmental stages. They offer additional hope for the control of this disease. However, in ILT endemic regions, improved biosecurity and management practices are critical for improved ILT control.