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Sampaio SA, de Oliveira RF, Borges KF, Gouveia ABVS, da Silva JMS, Santos AJ, Carrijo MS, dos Santos FR, de Araújo Neto FR, Gomide APC, Minafra CS. Influence of Monochromatic Light during Incubation on the Production and Metabolism of Low-Temperature Broiler Chicks. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1620. [PMID: 38891667 PMCID: PMC11171277 DOI: 10.3390/ani14111620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The use of artificial lighting during the incubation phase is a tool that has been studied with the aim of increasing the production rates and hatchability. Using this, this study aims to investigate the effects of the luminous incidence of white and red monochromatic light on the production and metabolism of broiler chicks subjected to low temperatures. A total of 315 eggs of Ross 708 heavy breeders were used. The eggs were distributed randomly, with 35 eggs per tray, totaling 105 eggs per incubator. The treatments were the following: incubation without the use of light; the use of white monochromatic light; and the use of red monochromatic light. The lamps used were of the LED type. The samples were distributed in the factorial completely randomized experimental design with position effect on the tray. Candling, egg weighing, calculating the probability of survival and egg weight loss were performed. Temperatures were recorded using a thermographic camera. At birth, three chicks per tray were euthanized for evaluation: weight with and without yolk residue, gastrointestinal tract biometry, and blood and liver biochemistry. Analyses were performed using the R computational program. It was observed that there was a significant effect of the treatments on the levels of calcium, phosphorus, cholesterol, amylase, glucose, urea and glutamate pyruvate transaminase on the biochemical profile of the blood and on the thermographic temperatures of the eggs; the experiment was kept at low temperatures resulting in thermal stress, with an average temperature of 34.5 °C. Therefore, the use of red and white monochromatic light in the artificial incubation process for brown-colored eggs is not recommended, because in the post-hatching phase, it promoted the metabolism dysregulation on the blood biochemical profile to control the differentiation in the wavelength of traditional incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Cibele Silva Minafra
- Goiano Federal Institute of Education Science and Technology (Instituto Federal Goiano—IF Goiano), Rio Verde 75.901-970, GO, Brazil; (S.A.S.); (R.F.d.O.); (K.F.B.); (A.B.V.S.G.); (J.M.S.d.S.); (A.J.S.); (M.S.C.); (F.R.d.S.); (F.R.d.A.N.); (A.P.C.G.)
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Mattioli S, Cartoni Mancinelli A, Bravi E, Angelucci E, Falcinelli B, Benincasa P, Castellini C, Sileoni V, Marconi O, Dal Bosco A. Dietary Freeze-Dried Flaxseed and Alfalfa Sprouts as Additional Ingredients to Improve the Bioactive Compounds and Reduce the Cholesterol Content of Hen Eggs. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 12:antiox12010103. [PMID: 36670965 PMCID: PMC9854451 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12010103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Eggs are a complete food with high-quality proteins; a 2:1 ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acid (SFA); and a good amount of minerals, as well as vitamins or antioxidant compounds. Seeds or mature plants were usually added to the feed to improve egg quality. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of alfalfa and flax freeze-dried sprouts supplementation in diets of laying hens on egg oxidative status and key bioactive compounds. Thirty Sassò hens were fed with three different diets: standard, standard + 3% freeze-dried alfalfa sprouts, or flaxseed sprouts. Ten pools of 10 egg yolks per group were collected at 0, 4, and 8 weeks and analyzed. Supplementation with sprouts enriched the phytosterols, phytoestrogens, tocols, carotenes, vitamin D, and n-3 fatty acid contents in the eggs. Cholesterol content was lower in both sprout-supplemented groups, and a decrease in its oxidative products was also observed. It was found that a 3% freeze-dried sprouts supplementation of approximately 56 days improves the egg quality. Further studies are necessary to verify higher supplementing doses and the applicability of this strategy in the commercial egg production chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Mattioli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
| | - Alice Cartoni Mancinelli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Bravi
- Italian Brewing Research Centre, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Elisa Angelucci
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
| | - Beatrice Falcinelli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
| | - Paolo Benincasa
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
| | - Cesare Castellini
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
| | - Valeria Sileoni
- Department of Economics, Universitas Mercatorum, Piazza Mattei 10, 00186 Rome, Italy
| | - Ombretta Marconi
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
- Italian Brewing Research Centre, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Dal Bosco
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121 Perugia, Italy
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Wang YH, Lin J, Wang J, Wu SG, Qiu K, Zhang HJ, Qi GH. The Role of Incubation Conditions on the Regulation of Muscle Development and Meat Quality in Poultry. Front Physiol 2022; 13:883134. [PMID: 35784883 PMCID: PMC9240787 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.883134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle is the most abundant edible tissue in table poultry, which serves as an important source of high protein for humans. Poultry myofiber originates in the early embryogenic stage, and the overall muscle fiber number is almost determined before hatching. Muscle development in the embryonic stage is critical to the posthatch muscle growth and final meat yield and quality. Incubation conditions including temperature, humidity, oxygen density, ventilation and lighting may substantially affect the number, shape and structure of the muscle fiber, which may produce long-lasting effect on the postnatal muscle growth and meat quality. Suboptimal incubation conditions can induce the onset of myopathies. Early exposure to suitable hatching conditions may modify the muscle histomorphology posthatch and the final muscle mass of the birds by regulating embryonic hormone levels and benefit the muscle cell activity. The elucidation of the muscle development at the embryonic stage would facilitate the modulation of poultry muscle quantity and meat quality. This review starts from the physical and biochemical characteristics of poultry myofiber formation, and brings together recent advances of incubation conditions on satellite cell migration, fiber development and transformation, and subsequent muscle myopathies and other meat quality defects. The underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms for the induced muscle growth and meat quality traits are also discussed. The future studies on the effects of external incubation conditions on the regulation of muscle cell proliferation and meat quality are suggested. This review may broaden our knowledge on the regulation of incubation conditions on poultry muscle development, and provide more informative decisions for hatchery in the selection of hatching parameter for pursuit of more large muscle size and superior meat quality.
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Nasri H, van den Brand H, Najjar T, Bouzouaia M. Egg storage and breeder age impact on egg quality and embryo development. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2019; 104:257-268. [DOI: 10.1111/jpn.13240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hedia Nasri
- Department of Animal Production National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia Tunis Tunisia
| | - Henry van den Brand
- Adaptation Physiology Group Wageningen University Wageningen The Netherlands
| | - Taha Najjar
- Department of Animal Production National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia Tunis Tunisia
| | - Moncef Bouzouaia
- Department of Animal Production National Agronomic Institute of Tunisia Tunis Tunisia
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Okur N, Eleroğlu H, Türkoğlu M. Impacts of Breeder Age, Storage Time and Setter Ventilation Program on Incubation and Post-Hatch Performance of Broilers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2017-0550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N Okur
- Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
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8
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Jacobs L, Delezie E, Duchateau L, Goethals K, Ampe B, Buyse J, Tuyttens FAM. Impact of transportation duration on stress responses in day-old chicks from young and old breeders. Res Vet Sci 2017; 112:172-176. [PMID: 28458107 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2017.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the interaction effect of transportation duration and parental age on physiological stress responses and quality in day-old chicks. After hatch, 3240 chicks from either 29-week old (young) or 60-week old (old) broiler breeders were transported for 1.5h (short) or 11h (long). Thereafter, 228 chicks were assessed for quality and blood plasma was assayed for corticosterone (CORT), lactate, glucose, and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS, increased concentrations can indicate oxidative stress). No interaction effects of parental age and transportation duration were found (all P>0.10). Chicks from young breeders showed higher CORT levels (P=0.007) and were of higher quality (Tona method, P<0.001) than those from old breeders. After long transportation, chicks showed increased CORT (P<0.001) and lower TBARS levels (P<0.001) compared to after short transportation. No evidence was provided that long transportation differently affected the quality or stress responses of chicks from breeder flocks of two ages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonie Jacobs
- Animal Sciences Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Scheldeweg 68, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
| | - Evelyne Delezie
- Animal Sciences Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Scheldeweg 68, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
| | - Luc Duchateau
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Klara Goethals
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Bart Ampe
- Animal Sciences Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Scheldeweg 68, 9090 Melle, Belgium; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Johan Buyse
- Laboratory of Livestock Physiology, Division of Animal and Human Health Engineering, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 30, 3001 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Frank Andre Maurice Tuyttens
- Animal Sciences Unit, Flanders Research Institute for Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Scheldeweg 68, 9090 Melle, Belgium; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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Iqbal J, Khan SH, Mukhtar N, Ahmed T, Pasha RA. Effects of egg size (weight) and age on hatching performance and chick quality of broiler breeder. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2014.987294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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de Oliveira JE, Druyan S, Uni Z, Ashwell CM, Ferket PR. Metabolic profiling of late-term turkey embryos by microarrays. Poult Sci 2013; 92:1011-28. [PMID: 23472025 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2012-02354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The last stages of embryonic development are crucial for turkeys as their metabolism shifts to accommodate posthatch survival and growth. To better understand the metabolic change that occurs during the perinatal period, focused microarray methodology was used to identify changes in the expression of key genes that control metabolism of turkey embryos from 20 d of incubation (E) until hatch (E28). Gene expression patterns were evaluated in liver, pectoral muscle, and hatching muscle and were associated with measured embryonic growth and tissue glycogen concentration. Within the studied period, the expression of 60 genes significantly changed in liver, 53 in pectoral muscle, and 51 in hatching muscle. Genes related to lipid metabolism (enoyl-CoA hydratase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, lipoprotein lipase, and thyroxine deiodinase) had reduced expression between E22 and E26, corresponding to the period of expected limited oxygen supply. In contrast, genes related to opposing pathways in carbohydrate metabolism, such as glycolysis and gluconeogenesis (hexokinases, glucose-6 phosphatase, phosphofructokinases, glucose 1-6 phosphatase, pyruvate kinase, and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase), or glycogenesis and glycogenolysis (glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase) had rather static expression patterns between E22 and E26, indicating their enzymatic activity must be under posttranscriptional control. Metabolic survey by microarray methodology brings new insights into avian embryonic development and physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E de Oliveira
- Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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Hamidu JA, Fasenko GM, Guan L, Barreda DR, Feddes JJR. Influence of parent flock age on embryonic metabolism in modern turkey strains. Poult Sci 2011; 90:426-34. [PMID: 21248341 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2010-00967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabolic response of some galliform embryos to embryonic heat production (EHP) and how incubation conditions have been adjusted to prevent overheating of embryos is well established in broiler breeders. However, the daily metabolic status of turkey embryos has not been studied or established in turkey embryos. The objectives of the current research were therefore to determine the respiratory (eggshell conductance, G) and metabolic status (EHP) of 2 modern turkey genetic strains [Hybrid (H) and Nicholas (N)] and 4 parent flock ages [young (Y, 30 wk), peak (P, 34 wk), mature (M, 55 wk), and old (O, 60 wk)] during incubation. To measure G, moisture loss from 15 eggs/genetic strain per flock age and saturated vapor pressure measured between the eggshell and its immediate environment were used. Daily embryonic O(2) consumption and CO(2) production rates were assessed 6 times each day from embryos of eggs (n = 11 eggs/genetic strain per flock age) incubated in individual metabolic chambers and were used to determined daily EHP. Data were analyzed using the mixed model procedure of SAS at P ≤ 0.05. The results showed that the G values (g/d per mmHg) were significantly different for the interaction between genetic strain and parent flock age (H × Y = 17.71, H × P = 17.53, H × M = 19.73, H × O = 26.46, N × Y = 16.70, N × P = 20.96; N × M = 25.47, N × O = 26.05; P = 0.0227). Daily EHP (mW) was higher in embryos from the O flock than in embryos from the Y flock during all days presented except at 8, 25, and 28 d of incubation (4 d: Y = 1.00, P = 0.93, M = 1.60, O = 1.75; 12 d: Y = 19.0, P = 20.0, M = 21.6, O = 23.4; 16 d: Y = 51.7, P = 60.5, M = 65.9, O = 70.8; 20 d: Y = 129, P = 146, M = 144, O = 155; 24 d: Y = 154, P = 188, M = 167, O = 180; 26 d: Y = 169, P = 199, M = 197, O = 230; and 27 d: Y = 231, P = 265, M = 288, O = 307; P < 0.05). The data showed that metabolic differences existed between embryos from flocks of different ages and that embryos from older flocks were metabolizing at a higher rate and could be subject to overheating, which requires further investigation. On the basis of the data, turkey eggs from flocks of different ages should be incubated separately for optimal physiological performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Hamidu
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Sharifi AR, Horst P, Simianer H. The effect of naked neck gene and ambient temperature and their interaction on reproductive traits of heavy broiler dams. Poult Sci 2010; 89:1360-71. [PMID: 20548063 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2009-00593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
High ambient temperature is a major factor for diminishing reproductive performance of broiler parent stocks. Homozygous naked neck (NaNa) broilers, which possess a higher adaptation to heat due to a reduction of feather coverage, exhibited higher growth rates and meat yield. This study was conducted to investigate the influence of genotype x temperature interactions on the reproduction traits of heavy broiler dams caused by different feathering genotypes induced by naked neck gene (Na). In an additional experiment, the effect of Na gene on embryonic activity using oxygen uptake was examined. Normal-feathered (nana) and NaNa hens were maintained in separate cages under high (30 degrees C) and moderate (19 degrees C) temperatures, with RH of 55% from the 18th to 72nd week of age. Egg production, fertility, hatchability, and the time of embryonic mortality were recorded. In comparison with the NaNa genotype, the nana hens showed clear performance depressions under thermal stress with respect to egg production (63%), fertility (20%), hatchability, and number of chicks (72%). Under temperate ambient temperature, there were no differences in laying performance and fertility between both genotypes, with the exception of hatchability due to an increase in embryonic mortality as a result of the Na gene and consequently in the complex trait number of chicks. The early embryonic mortality of eggs laid by nana hens exposed to heat stress is clearly higher than of eggs by nana hens kept under temperate ambient temperature. In contrast, there were no significant differences in early embryonic mortality of eggs of NaNa birds kept under high and temperate environmental temperatures, demonstrating that heat stress leads to reduced early embryonic livability. Embryonic mortality in the late developing stage is significantly increased, and the homozygous genotype is much more affected than the heterozygous embryo. The possible reason for the Na gene-induced embryonic mortality is still not clear. In this investigation, it is shown that the phenomenon cannot be explained by the oxygen consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Sharifi
- Department of Animal Sciences, Animal Breeding and Genetics Group, Georg-August-University Göttingen 37075, Germany.
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Cherian G. Egg quality and yolk polyunsaturated fatty acid status in relation to broiler breeder hen age and dietary n-3 oils. Poult Sci 2008; 87:1131-7. [PMID: 18493002 DOI: 10.3382/ps.2007-00333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of broiler breeder hen age and dietary n-3 oils on yolk n-3 and n-6 fatty acid composition, egg quality, fertility, and hatchability were investigated. A total of 2,200 eggs were collected from wk 26 through 62 from Cobb breeder hens fed diets containing 1.75% fish oil + 1.75% yellow grease (low n-3) or 3.5% fish oil (high n-3). Eggs obtained from a commercial source were used as the control for n-6 and n-3 fatty acid composition and hatchability studies. A significant decrease in egg weight, yolk weight, shell weight, and yolk color was observed for high n-3 when compared with low n-3 eggs (P < 0.05). No difference was noted in egg total fat content due to dietary treatments. However, egg fat was highest at 42 wk for high and low n-3 eggs when compared with other weeks (P < 0.05). Total n-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), and the DHA:arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4 n-6) ratios were higher in high n-3 eggs when compared with low n-3 eggs. The incorporation of DHA was lowest at wk 26 and highest at wk 38 for low and high n-3 eggs (P < 0.05). Low n-3 and high n-3 eggs at the oldest age had the highest level of AA (P < 0.05). A positive correlation between hen age and egg yolk AA content was observed. The r(2) values for AA in low n-3 and high n-3 eggs were 0.91 and 0.90, respectively (P < 0.05). The total content of long-chain (>18-C) n-6 PUFA (AA+ 22:4 n-6+22:5 n-6) constituted over 0.3 g per commercial egg when compared with 0.09 and 0.07 g in low and high n-3 eggs, respectively. The content of DHA in commercial eggs was negligible (<0.5%) when compared with low and high n-3 (P < 0.05). The overall fertility was 98.6 and 97.4%, and hatchability of fertile eggs was 80 and 83.8% for low and high n-3 eggs, respectively (P > 0.05). The overall fertility was 96%, and hatchability of fertile eggs was 80% for commercial eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Cherian
- Department of Animal Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331, USA.
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Lourens A, van den Brand H, Heetkamp MJW, Meijerhof R, Kemp B. Effects of eggshell temperature and oxygen concentration on embryo growth and metabolism during incubation. Poult Sci 2007; 86:2194-9. [PMID: 17878449 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.10.2194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Embryo development and heat production (HP) were studied in eggs of similar size (60 to 65 g) that were incubated at normal (37.8 degrees C) or high (38.9 degrees C) eggshell temperature (EST) and exposed to low (17%), normal (21%), or high (25%) O(2) concentration from d 9 through 19. High EST initially increased HP, but gradually O(2) became more important for HP than EST. Finally,HP was highest for the combination of high EST with high O(2) and lowest for the combination of high EST with low O(2). High EST decreased hatch time, BW, yolk free BW, and relative heart weight. The EST had no effect on residual yolk weight, chick length, or relative liver weight. Increased O(2) increased yolk free BW and chick length and decreased residual yolk weight at hatch. No interactions between EST and O(2) were observed with regard to embryo development and hatchling characteristics. If embryo development is reflected by HP, it can be concluded that high EST primarily increased embryonic development until the second week of incubation. During the third week of incubation, O(2) had a greater effect in determining embryo development than EST.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lourens
- Division of Animal Production of the Animal Sciences Group of Wageningen University and Research Centre, PO Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, the Netherlands.
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Enting H, Kruip TAM, Verstegen MWA, van der Aar PJ. The Effect of Low-Density Diets on Broiler Breeder Performance During the Laying Period and on Embryonic Development of their Offspring. Poult Sci 2007; 86:850-6. [PMID: 17435018 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.5.850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of low-density diets on bird performance, egg composition, and embryonic development was studied with 2,100 female and 210 male Cobb broiler breeders from 25 to 60 wk of age. The experiment included 5 treatments. These included a control group with a normal density diet (ND, 2,800 kcal of AME/kg). Treatments 2 (LD11) and 3 (LD21) had a 11 and 21% lower nutrient density. Treatment 4 (LD11(OP)) had a 11% less dense diet, which was obtained by inclusion of other feed ingredients. In these 4 treatments similar diets were given during the rearing and the laying period. Treatment 5 combined LD12 in the rearing period and ND diets during the laying period (LD12-ND). Egg composition and embryonic development were measured in eggs of ND and LD21 birds at 29 and 41 wk of age. During the laying period from wk 25 to 60, live weights did not differ among treatments, except that birds fed LD11(OP) had lower live weights. A significantly higher rate of lay was provided by LD11 compared with ND. Egg weights were significantly higher when low-density diets were fed, particularly in LD11(OP). Percentage of fertile eggs did not differ among treatments. Compared with the other treatments, LD11(OP) provided a significantly lower hatchability. We found that LD21 resulted in a better development of the area vitellina externa and heart and embryo weight at 29 wk of age. It was concluded that this was related to a higher egg weight and egg white proportion. This suggests that the amount of egg white in eggs of hens fed ND was limiting for embryonic development, particularly in eggs of young broiler breeders.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Enting
- Schothorst Feed Research, 8200 AM Lelystad, the Netherlands
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Decuypere E, Bruggeman V. The Endocrine Interface of Environmental and Egg Factors Affecting Chick Quality. Poult Sci 2007; 86:1037-42. [PMID: 17435044 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.5.1037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Day-old chicks are the endproduct of the hatchery industry and form important starting material for the broiler farms. The major objective is to obtain a high hatchability of marketable chicks and a low spread of hatch. For the farmers, these chicks have to perform well, which is translated in high viability, high growth rate, high breast meat yield, and low feed conversion. A good-quality 1-d-old chick is hence a crucial hinge between the hatchery and the broiler farm. Moreover, maximal hatchability is not always synonymous with maximal posthatch viability and growth potential of the chick. Quantitative and qualitative scoring of chick quality is assessed. We will briefly discuss some recently developed scoring systems, which will convert differences in qualitative parameters into a quantitative score. Preincubation factors such as egg storage duration and age of broiler breeders, as well as incubation conditions, affect day-old chick quality and subsequent broiler performance. Heat production and metabolism, hormonal balances of thyroid hormones and corticosterone, and gas exchange (O(2), CO(2)) are of fundamental importance for embryonic development and survival during incubation. Results from our studies indicated that embryos with higher pCO(2) levels in the air cell and higher triiodothyronine-thyroxine ratios at internal pipping or in the newly hatched chicks had higher hatchability, chick quality, and posthatch chick growth until 7 d of age. Incubation factors such as temperature, turning conditions, or gaseous environment also affect development, change concentrations of hormones related to metabolism and growth of the embryo, and in this way affect 1-d-old chick quality. Moreover, the spread of the hatch process is affected by incubation conditions as well as by the aforementioned preincubation factors. Depending on the spread of the hatching curve together with the place in the sequence of hatching (early or late) and in interaction with quality of the eggs set for incubation, storage duration, and age of breeders, there will be a period between hatch and first feeding of variable length. This may have repercussions on overall growth and many related physiological processes such as yolk uptake, metabolic level, and gastrointestinal development. In its turn, time of first feeding is related to some crucial hormone levels and enzyme activities for growth that are strongly influenced by posthatch food intake such as insulin and p70S6 kinase activity, a key enzyme in the control of protein synthesis. The magnitude of the effect of delayed feeding is dependent on the spread of hatching as well as on the hatching period within the hatching window. This may be related to the different intrinsic quality or characteristics of chicks, e.g., early vs. late hatchers, as is shown by their respective hormonal levels. The latter may be a causal factor for the actual hatching time within the hatching window as well as for the later intrinsic quality of the hatched chick, which is not reflected in any of the actual scoring systems for chick quality. This is largely ignored in previous studies and in hatchery practice so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Decuypere
- Laboratory of Livestock Genetics, Immunology and Physiology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Department of Biosystems, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium.
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17
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Huff GR, Huff WE, Rath NC, Solis de Los Santos F, Farnell MB, Donoghue AM. Influence of Hen Age on the Response of Turkey Poults to Cold Stress, Escherichia coli Challenge, and Treatment with a Yeast Extract Antibiotic Alternative. Poult Sci 2007; 86:636-42. [PMID: 17369533 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.4.636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Two battery experiments were conducted to evaluate a commercial yeast extract feed supplement, Alphamune, in a cold stress-Escherichia coli challenge of 1-wk-old turkeys. Experiment 1 used 1-d-old male poults that were the progeny of 33-wk-old hens in their second week of lay. Experiment 2 used male poults of the same genetic line from 40-wk-old hens in their eighth week of lay. Poults were fed a standard unmedicated turkey starter diet or the same diet with either a low level (504 g/t) or a high level (1,008 g/t) of yeast extract. Challenged birds were exposed to intermittent cold stress during wk 1 to 3 and to a respiratory E. coli challenge at 1 wk of age. In both experiments, BW at wk 1 was increased by feeding yeast extract. In experiment 1, challenged, control-fed birds had decreased BW at wk 3 and feed conversion was protected by both levels of yeast extract supplementation. In experiment 2, challenge had no effect on control-fed birds; however, yeast extract decreased the BW of challenged birds. In experiment 1, total leukocyte numbers were decreased by challenge of control-fed birds only, and there was no effect of challenge on the heterophil/lymphocyte ratio. In experiment 2, total leukocyte numbers were decreased and the heterophil/lymphocyte ratio was increased in challenged, control-fed birds. Percentage mortality was not affected by challenge in experiment 1; however, in experiment 2, mortality was increased by challenge of control-fed birds and those fed the lower level of yeast extract. These results suggest that hen age should be considered when designing studies to evaluate antibiotic alternatives and in making decisions for incorporating such alternatives into production.
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Affiliation(s)
- G R Huff
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service Poultry Production and Product Safety Research, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA.
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18
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Enting H, Boersma WJA, Cornelissen JBWJ, van Winden SCL, Verstegen MWA, van der Aar PJ. The effect of low-density broiler breeder diets on performance and immune status of their offspring. Poult Sci 2007; 86:282-90. [PMID: 17234841 DOI: 10.1093/ps/86.2.282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Effects of low-density broiler breeder diets on offspring performance and mortality were studied using 2,100 female and 210 male Cobb 500 breeders. Breeder treatments involved 4 experimental groups and a control group with normal density diets (ND, 2,600 kcal of AME/kg during rearing and 2,800 kcal of AME/kg during laying). In treatment 2, nutrient densities were decreased by 12% (LD12) and 11% (LD11) during the rearing and laying periods, respectively, whereas in treatment 3, nutrient densities were decreased by 23% (LD23) and 21% (LD21) during the rearing and laying periods, respectively. The nutrient density in these treatments was decreased through inclusion of palm kernel meal, wheat bran, wheat gluten feed, and sunflower seed meal in the diets. Treatment 4 included diets with the same nutrient densities as in treatment 2 but included oats and sugar beet pulp (LD12(OP) and LD11(OP)). In treatment 5, the same low-density diet was given to the breeders as in treatment 2 during the rearing period, but it was followed by a normal density diet during the laying period (LD12-ND). Treatments were applied from 4 to 60 wk of age. On low-density diets, offspring showed an increased 1-d-old weight. As compared with offspring of breeders that received ND, the d 38 live weight of chickens from 29-wk-old breeders fed LD11 was improved. Mortality was reduced in offspring from 60-wk-old parent stock given low-density diets. The IgM titers in 35-d-old offspring from eggs with a lower-than-average weight were reduced when 29-wk-old broiler breeders were fed low-density diets. In offspring from eggs with a higher-than-average weight from 60-wk-old parent stock given LD11 or LD21 diets, IgM titers were higher compared with ND. It was concluded that low-density broiler breeder diets can improve offspring growth rates, reduce mortality, and reduce or increase immune responses, depending on breeder age and egg weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Enting
- Schothorst Feed Research, 8200 AM Lelystad, the Netherlands
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19
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Joseph NS, Moran E. Effect of Flock Age and Postemergent Holding in the Hatcher on Broiler Live Performance and Further-Processing Yield. J APPL POULTRY RES 2005. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/14.3.512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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20
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Christensen VL, Grimes JL, Wineland MJ, Davis GS. Accelerating embryonic growth during incubation following prolonged egg storage. 1. Embryonic livability. Poult Sci 2004; 82:1863-8. [PMID: 14717543 DOI: 10.1093/ps/82.12.1863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The hypothesis was proposed that shorter incubation periods and faster growth rates for long-stored eggs would improve embryonic survival and poult hatchling quality. Increased incubation temperatures were tested for their efficacy in improving embryonic livability in fertilized eggs stored for 15 d prior to setting in the incubator compared to controls stored for only 3 d. Two temperature treatments were applied. In experiment 1, a 37.8 degrees C set point for dry bulb temperature was used to accelerate development for the initial 2 wk compared to the controls at 37.5 degrees C. Following treatment, the accelerated embryos were returned to the same machine as the controls. In experiment 2, higher temperature exposure was only for the initial week of incubation. The temperature and storage treatments were in a completely random 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of treatments. At the completion of 28 d of incubation, survival rates of all treatments were determined by opening all nonhatching eggs to differentiate truly fertilized eggs from unfertilized. Hatchability was determined by dividing the total number of poults on a hatching tray by the number of fertilized eggs on a tray. Incubator trays were the experimental unit. Tissues were sampled in both experiments to verify treatment effects on growth and metabolism. Hatching times were observed at 4-h intervals during the actual hatching process beginning at 25 d of incubation. It was concluded that delayed growth and depressed metabolism of fertilized turkey eggs stored for 15 d can be compensated for by exposure to higher incubation temperatures for the initial 1 or 2 wk of incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Christensen
- Department of Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7608, USA.
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21
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Christensen VL, Davis GS, Nestor KE. Environmental incubation factors influence embryonic thyroid hormones. Poult Sci 2002; 81:442-50. [PMID: 11989742 DOI: 10.1093/ps/81.4.442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyroid hormone responses in embryonic avian species are of two types, developmental and metabolic. Many studies have characterized the developmental function of the turkey embryonic thyroid, but few have characterized the metabolic function. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the response of turkey embryonic thyroid hormones to three environmental factors. We proposed that embryonic thyroids from different genetic backgrounds would respond differently to changes in maternal diet and incubation temperature. Lines of turkeys known to have different embryonic growth and survival were examined in the current study. These eggs differ in egg weight, eggshell conductance, hatchling weight and organ maturity at the time of hatching. Eggs were produced throughout a 20 wk laying period and embryos were sampled at monthly intervals. Half of the hens producing the eggs were fed additional iodide in their diets, then, subsequently, half of each dietary treatment and line combination were incubated at either 36.8 C or 37.5 C to prolong the incubation period. Embryos were sampled during the final week of incubation when thyroid hormones become elevated to effect maturation and survival functions in turkey embryos. Embryonic thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels were assayed by RIA and compared among the treatments. Line, diet, and incubation period interacted to affect the levels of T4, T3 and T3 to T4 ratios in the turkey embryonic during late incubation. It was concluded that environmental factors can affect circulating thyroid hormone levels in turkey embryos, thus affecting metabolic functions, and the possibility exists to manipulate these circulating levels using environmental incubation conditions to improve hatchability.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Christensen
- Department of Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh 27695-7608, USA.
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Tona K, Bamelis F, Coucke W, Bruggeman V, Decuypere E. Relationship Between Broiler Breeder's Age and Egg Weight Loss and Embryonic Mortality During Incubation in Large-Scale Conditions. J APPL POULTRY RES 2001. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/10.3.221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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23
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Christensen VL, Davis GS. Maternal dietary iodide influences turkey embryonic thyroid function. Poult Sci 2001; 80:1286-92. [PMID: 11558913 DOI: 10.1093/ps/80.9.1286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
An experiment was designed to examine a mechanism to improve embryonic survival following maternal thyroid hormone manipulation. Commercial turkey breeder hens were fed diets containing supplemental iodide to mimic changes in the maternal thyroid output during an egg production cycle (32 to 48 wk of age). Dietary iodide treatment depressed maternal blood thyroxine (T4) concentrations in a time-dependent manner. Dietary iodide depressed maternal blood 3, 5, 3'-triiodothyronine (T3) levels across all times examined. The maternal dietary treatment increased embryonic blood concentrations of T4 at 25 to 28 d of incubation but depressed blood concentrations of T3 only at 27 d of incubation. In a second trial, the same response was noted in maternal blood when the hens were fed additional iodide with no corresponding effects on T3 concentrations. The iodide treatment decreased embryonic T4 concentrations in the second trial as well but in a time-dependent manner. Iodide accelerated the increase in T4 concentrations coincidental with earlier pipping in eggs from iodide-fed dams compared with controls. The data indicate that the embryonic thyroid function during hatching is dependent upon the maternal thyroid in turkey dams, even though the embryo develops outside the maternal body.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Christensen
- Department of Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh 27695-7608, USA.
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Fairchild AS, Grimes JL, Jones FT, Wineland MJ, Edens FW, Sefton AE. Effects of Hen Age, Bio-Mos,® and Flavomycin® on Poult Susceptibility to Oral Escherichia coli Challenge. Poult Sci 2001; 80:562-71. [PMID: 11372704 DOI: 10.1093/ps/80.5.562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of hen age, Escherichia coli, and dietary Bio-Mos and Flavomycin on poult performance from 1 to 21 d were studied. Day-of-hatch BUTA (BIG-6) male poults were gavaged orally (1 mL) with approximately 10(8) cfu/mL E. coli composed of four serotypes or sterile carrier broth. A mixture of the same E. coli cultures was added to the poults' water troughs to attain a concentration of approximately 10(6) cfu/mL on a weekly basis to ensure a continuous bacterial challenge. Within each E. coli split plot treatment group, poults from hens of different ages (33 and 58 wk of age) were fed diets containing Bio-Mos (1 g/kg feed), Flavomycin (2.2 mg active ingredient/kg feed), Bio-Mos plus Flavomycin, or a control diet, in a randomized complete block design. This experiment yielded eight treatments per challenge group. At Weeks 1 and 3, eight birds from each treatment from the E. coli challenged and unchallenged groups were randomly chosen for bacterial sampling of liver and intestinal tissue for coliforms, aerobic bacteria, and Lactobacillus spp. E. coli isolates from tissue samples were O serotyped. During E. coli challenge, dietary Bio-Mos and Flavomycin improved poult BW and BW gains (P < or = 0.05). When poults were not challenged with E. coli, poults from old hens had improved BW and cumulative BW gains over poults from young hens (P < or = 0.05). Cumulative 3-wk BW gains for unchallenged poults from young hens were improved by Bio-Mos and Flavomycin (P < or = 0.05) alone and in combination when compared to the control diet. Two of the four E. coli serotypes administered were recovered. Several serotypes were recovered that were not administered. It may be concluded that dietary Bio-Mos and Flavomycin can improve the overall performance of poults, especially when they are faced with an E. coli challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- A S Fairchild
- Department of Poultry Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh 27695, USA
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Christensen V, Grimes J, Wineland M, Bagley L. Effects of Turkey Breeder Hen Age, Strain, and Length of the Incubation Period on Survival of Embryos and Hatchlings. J APPL POULTRY RES 2001. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/10.1.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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26
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Fairchild A, Grimes J, Wineland M, Jones F. A Comparison of the Microbiological Profile of Poults from Young Versus Old Turkey Breeder Hens. J APPL POULTRY RES 2000. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/9.4.476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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27
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Fairchild A, Grimes J, Wineland M, Jones F. The Effect of Hen Age on Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli Isolates from Turkey Poults. J APPL POULTRY RES 2000. [DOI: 10.1093/japr/9.4.487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Applegate TJ, Lilburn MS. Effect of turkey (Meleagridis gallopavo) breeder hen age and egg size on poult development. 1. Intestinal growth and glucose tolerance of the turkey poult. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1999; 124:371-80. [PMID: 10665365 DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(99)00139-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Three experiments were conducted to determine if turkey (Meleagridis gallopavo) hen age and egg weight affect poult intestinal development and glucose tolerance during the first week after hatching. Differences in glucose tolerance were not consistent across the experiments. In experiment 1, 4-day-old poults from the younger hens and lightest egg weight class had significantly greater fasting plasma glucose concentrations (P < 0.04) and were also higher at 30 and 60 min post-injection of 250 mg glucose. In experiment 2, egg weight class had no significant effects on plasma glucose concentrations of 4-day-old poults (after injection of 2.5 mg glucose/g body weight). In experiment 3, plasma glucose concentrations were not different between groups at 0 or 30 min post-injection (3.75 mg glucose/g body weight), however, poults from the younger hens had 79-90 mg/dl higher plasma glucose concentrations 60 min post-injection versus poults from the older hens. Neither egg weight class or hen age consistently affected small intestinal weight, length, or density (g/cm) measures across experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Applegate
- Department of Animal Sciences, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster 44691, USA
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Applegate TJ, Dibner JJ, Kitchell ML, Uni Z, Lilburn MS. Effect of turkey (Meleagridis gallopavo) breeder hen age and egg size on poult development. 2. Intestinal villus growth, enterocyte migration and proliferation of the turkey poult. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1999; 124:381-9. [PMID: 10665366 DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(99)00140-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Villus growth, enterocyte migration and proliferation were measured in the small intestine of poults (Meleagridis gallopavo) to determine if hen age and/or egg size influences these characteristics during the first week after hatching. At hatching, distal jejunal villi were 22.8 microns longer in poults from the older (48 weeks) versus the younger (34 weeks) hens (P < 0.05). Similarly, labeled enterocytes in distal jejunal sections from poults from the older hens had migrated 28 microns (10%) farther along the crypt-villus axis at hatching, as compared to poults from the younger hens (P < 0.05). Villus growth differences and enterocyte migration were not consistently affected by hen age or egg weight class in poults from 1 to 7 days old. These results suggest that even though intestinal villi may be more advanced developmentally at hatch in poults from the older hens, however post-hatch growth of the intestine or the poult is not affected by hen age or egg weight class.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Applegate
- Department of Animal Sciences, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Ohio State University, Wooster 44691-4096, USA
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Applegate TJ, Harper D, Lilburn MS. Effect of hen production age on egg composition and embryo development in commercial Pekin ducks. Poult Sci 1998; 77:1608-12. [PMID: 9835332 DOI: 10.1093/ps/77.11.1608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
At 26, 31, 36, and 42 wk of age, eggs were collected from the same duck breeder flock to study the effects of hen production age on egg composition and embryo development. At each hen age, yolk and albumen measurements were made on a random subsample of unincubated eggs. Embryo and yolk sac measurements were made at 20, 22, 24, 26, 27, and 28 d of incubation. Egg weight was significantly affected by hen production age, but most of the observed age effects occurred between 26 and 31 wk with minimal age differences thereafter due to a quantitative feed restriction for egg weight. Yolk weight increased significantly with hen production age, with the largest increase, 6.6 g, also occurring between 26 and 31 wk of age. Yolk-free duckling weight increased with hen production age at 27 d of incubation. The yolk sacs of embryos from the 31-, 36-, and 42-wk-old hens were heavier at 20 and 22 d, before the differentiation in embryo weight. Differences in yolk sac weight were not consistently affected by hen production age between 26 and 28 d of incubation. The eggs from the 42-wk-old hens weighed 3.3 g less than those from the 31-wk-old hens, but yolk-free duckling weight at 27 d was 2.9 g heavier from the 42-wk-old hens.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Applegate
- Department of Animal Sciences, The Ohio State University, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Wooster 44691, USA
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