Normative Criteria and Their Inclusion in a Regulatory Framework for New Plant Varieties Derived From Genome Editing

Animal Transgenesis and Cloning: Combined Development and Future Perspectives

The revolution in animal transgenesis began in 1981 and continues to become more efficient, cheaper, and faster to perform. New genome editing technologies, especially CRISPR-Cas9, are leading to a new era of genetically modified or edited organisms. Some researchers advocate this new era as the time of synthetic biology or re-engineering. Nonetheless, we are witnessing advances in high-throughput sequencing, artificial DNA synthesis, and design of artificial genomes at a fast pace. These advances in symbiosis with animal cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) allow the development of improved livestock, animal models of human disease, and heterologous production of bioproducts for medical applications. In the context of genetic engineering, SCNT remains a useful technology to generate animals from genetically modified cells. This chapter addresses these fast-developing technologies driving this biotechnological revolution and their association with animal cloning technology.

CRISPR/Cas- and Topical RNAi-Based Technologies for Crop Management and Improvement: Reviewing the Risk Assessment and Challenges Towards a More Sustainable Agriculture

Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated gene (Cas) system and RNA interference (RNAi)-based non-transgenic approaches are powerful technologies capable of revolutionizing plant research and breeding. In recent years, the use of these modern technologies has been explored in various sectors of agriculture, introducing or improving important agronomic traits in plant crops, such as increased yield, nutritional quality, abiotic- and, mostly, biotic-stress resistance. However, the limitations of each technique, public perception, and regulatory aspects are hindering its wide adoption for the development of new crop varieties or products. In an attempt to reverse these mishaps, scientists have been researching alternatives to increase the specificity, uptake, and stability of the CRISPR and RNAi system components in the target organism, as well as to reduce the chance of toxicity in nontarget organisms to minimize environmental risk, health problems, and regulatory issues. In this review, we discuss several aspects related to risk assessment, toxicity, and advances in the use of CRISPR/Cas and topical RNAi-based technologies in crop management and breeding. The present study also highlights the advantages and possible drawbacks of each technology, provides a brief overview of how to circumvent the off-target occurrence, the strategies to increase on-target specificity, the harm/benefits of association with nanotechnology, the public perception of the available techniques, worldwide regulatory frameworks regarding topical RNAi and CRISPR technologies, and, lastly, presents successful case studies of biotechnological solutions derived from both technologies, raising potential challenges to reach the market and being social and environmentally safe.

Legal and practical challenges to authorization of gene edited plants in the EU

According to a predominant interpretation of the C-528/16 judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union, mutants resulting from gene editing, even those featuring only single nucleotide variants, should be subject to the authorization procedures designed for organisms developed through genetic modification (i.e. insertion of large DNA fragments). In this article, we illustrate practical problems with the authorization of products of gene editing in the EU. On the basis of these problems, we analyze the influence of the current interpretation of EU legislation and judgment on the practical ability to authorize and detect such products on the EU market. We show that the predominant interpretation of the judgment leads to legally unacceptable consequences, in particular to the violation of the principle of proportionality with regard to individuals who wish to develop and market products of gene editing. As a result of our considerations, we show that the C-528/16 judgment did not need to be interpreted in the dominant way.

Impacts of the EU GMO regulatory framework for plant genome editing

New plant breeding technologies, such as genome editing, are enabling new crop varieties to be developed far quicker and with greater precision and scope than achievable using conventional methods. These advances could help farmers address the challenges of climate change, sustainability, and global food security. However, despite their potential, the uptake of these new technologies has been slowed down due to the uncertainty associated with the regulation of genome edited crops. For many European consumers, their view of new breeding technologies is influenced by many factors. Those who have never faced a major food crisis may not sufficiently appreciate the challenges posed by a projected rise of 2 billion in the human population by 2050. In addition, consumers with a regular and plentiful supply of food may not have to consider how their food is produced, or appreciate the challenges EU farmers are already facing to meet future demand. Misleading online articles, questioning the safety and ethics of these "new" biotech foods, can also lead consumers to be reluctant to accept them. Consequently, Europe's mixed view on biotech crops may also be hindering their adoption in countries who have even more to gain from the technology. In this review, we discuss the current data on global and EU GM crop adoption and the potential impact a new wave of crop development may have for agriculture. We reflect on how the EU has viewed GM crops, and we consider the future of both genetic modification (GM) and genome editing (GE) in the EU. We explore lessons learnt from the adoption of GM crops and examine the potential impact the recent decision not to exempt genome edited crops from the EU GMO Directive, will have on EU farmers, scientists, consumers, trading countries, and the rest of the world.