Regulation of Synthetic Biology: Developments Under the Convention on Biological Diversity and Its Protocols

Regulatory framework for genetically modified organisms in the Kingdom of Eswatini

The Kingdom of Eswatini is a Party to the Convention on Biological Diversity and to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. As Party, Eswatini has domesticated these agreements by passing the Biosafety Act, of 2012 to provide for the safe handling, transfer, and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) in the country. The Act regulates living modified organisms to be used for confined field trials, commercial release, import, export, and transit, and for food, feed, and processing. Guidance is provided for prospective applicants before any application is made to the Competent Authority. This framework also provides for the regulation of emerging technologies such as synthetic biology and genome editing. The regulatory framework for living modified organisms aims to provide an enabling environment for the precautionary use of modern biotechnology and its products in the country in order to safeguard biological diversity and human health.

Production of marine-derived bioactive peptide molecules for industrial applications: A reverse engineering approach

This review examines a wide range of marine microbial-derived bioactive peptide molecules, emphasizing the significance of reverse engineering in their production. The discussion encompasses the advancements in Marine Natural Products (MNPs) bio-manufacturing through the integration of omics-driven microbial engineering and bioinformatics. The distinctive features of non-ribosomally synthesised peptides (NRPs), and ribosomally synthesised precursor peptides (RiPP) biosynthesis is elucidated and presented. Additionally, the article delves into the origins of common peptide modifications. It highlights various genome mining approaches for the targeted identification of Biosynthetic Gene Clusters (BGCs) and novel RiPP and NRPs-derived peptides. The review aims to demonstrate the advancements, prospects, and obstacles in engineering both RiPP and NRP biosynthetic pathways.

A comprehensive review on novel synthetic foods: Potential risk factors, detection strategies, and processing technologies

Nowadays, the food industry is facing challenges due to the simultaneous rise in global warming, population, and food consumption. As the integration of synthetic biology and food science, novel synthetic foods have obtained high attention to address these issues. However, these novel foods may cause potential risks related to human health. Four types of novel synthetic foods, including plant-based foods, cultured meat, fermented foods, and microalgae-based foods, were reviewed in the study. The original food sources, consumer acceptance, advantages and disadvantages of these foods were discussed. Furthermore, potential risk factors, such as nutritional, biological, and chemical risk factors, associated with these foods were described and analyzed. Additionally, the current detection methods (e.g., enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, biosensors, chromatography, polymerase chain reaction, isothermal amplification, and microfluidic technology) and processing technologies (e.g., microwave treatment, ohmic heating, steam explosion, high hydrostatic pressure, ultrasound, cold plasma, and supercritical carbon dioxide) were reviewed and discussed critically. Nonetheless, it is crucial to continue innovating and developing new detection and processing technologies to effectively evaluate these novel synthetic foods and ensure their safety. Finally, approaches to enhance the quality of these foods were briefly presented. It will provide insights into the development and management of novel synthetic foods for food industry.

EcoGenoRisk: Developing a computational ecological risk assessment tool for synthetic biology

The expanding field of synthetic biology (synbio) supports new opportunities in the design of targeted bioproducts or modified microorganisms. However, this rapid development of synbio products raises concerns surrounding the potential risks of modified microorganisms contaminating unintended environments. These potential invasion risks require new bioinformatic tools to inform the design phase. EcoGenoRisk is a newly constructed computational risk assessment tool for invasiveness that aims to predict where synbio microorganisms may establish a population by screening for habitats of genetically similar microorganisms. The first module of the tool identifies genetically similar microorganisms and potential ecological relationships such as competition, mutualism, and inhibition. In total, 520 archaeal and 32,828 bacterial complete assembly genomes were analyzed to test the specificity and accuracy of the tool as well as to characterize the enzymatic profiles of different taxonomic lineages. Additionally, ecological relationships were analyzed to determine which would result in the greatest potential overlap between shared functional profiles. Notably, competition displayed the significantly highest overlap of shared functions between compared genomes. Overall, EcoGenoRisk is a flexible software pipeline that assists environmental risk assessors to query large databases of known microorganisms and prioritize follow-up bench scale studies.

Cell morphology engineering enhances grazing resistance of Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 for non-sterile large-scale cultivation

In the practical scale of cyanobacterial cultivation, the golden algae Poterioochromonas malhamensis is a well-known predator that causes devastating damage to the culture, referred to as pond crash. The establishment and maintenance of monoculture conditions are ideal for large-scale cultures. However, this is a difficult challenge because microbial contamination is unavoidable in practical-scale culture facilities. In the present study, we unexpectedly observed the pond crash phenomenon during the pilot-scale cultivation of Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 using a 100-L photobioreactor. This was due to the contamination with P. malhamensis, which probably originated from residual fouling. Interestingly, we found that S.elongatus PCC 7942 can alter its morphological structure when subjected to continuous grazing pressure from predators, resulting in cells that were more than 100 times longer than those of the wild-type strain. These hyper-elongated S.elongatus PCC 7942 cells had mutations in the genes encoding FtsZ or Ftn2 which are involved in bacterial cell division. Importantly, the elongated phenotype remained stable during cultivation, enabling S.elongatus PCC 7942 to thrive and resist grazing. The cultivation of the elongated S.elongatus PCC 7942 mutant strain in a 100-L pilot-scale photobioreactor under non-sterile conditions resulted in increased cyanobacterial biomass without encountering pond crash. This study demonstrates an efficient strategy for cyanobacterial cell culture in practical-scale bioreactors without the need for extensive decontamination or sterilization of the growth medium and culture facility, which can contribute to economically viable cultivation and bioprocessing of microalgae.

Advances and challenges in synthetic biology for mosquito control

Mosquito-borne illnesses represent a significant global health peril, resulting in approximately one million fatalities annually. West Nile, dengue, Zika, and malaria are continuously expanding their global reach, driven by factors that escalate mosquito populations and pathogen transmission. Innovative control measures are imperative to combat these catastrophic ailments. Conventional approaches, such as eliminating breeding sites and using insecticides, have been helpful, but they face challenges such as insecticide resistance and environmental harm. Given the mounting severity of mosquito-borne diseases, there is promise in exploring innovative approaches using synthetic biology to bolster mosquitoes' resistance to pathogens, or even eliminate the mosquito vectors, as a means of control. This review outlines current strategies, future goals, and the importance of gene editing for global health defenses against mosquito-borne diseases.

Epistemology of synthetic biology: a new theoretical framework based on its potential objects and objectives

Synthetic biology is a new research field which attempts to understand, modify, and create new biological entities by adopting a modular and systemic conception of the living organisms. The development of synthetic biology has generated a pluralism of different approaches, bringing together a set of heterogeneous practices and conceptualizations from various disciplines, which can lead to confusion within the synthetic biology community as well as with other biological disciplines. I present in this manuscript an epistemological analysis of synthetic biology in order to better define this new discipline in terms of objects of study and specific objectives. First, I present and analyze the principal research projects developed at the foundation of synthetic biology, in order to establish an overview of the practices in this new emerging discipline. Then, I analyze an important scientometric study on synthetic biology to complete this overview. Afterwards, considering this analysis, I suggest a three-level classification of the object of study for synthetic biology (which are different kinds of living entities that can be built in the laboratory), based on three successive criteria: structural hierarchy, structural origin, functional origin. Finally, I propose three successively linked objectives in which synthetic biology can contribute (where the achievement of one objective led to the development of the other): interdisciplinarity collaboration (between natural, artificial, and theoretical sciences), knowledge of natural living entities (past, present, future, and alternative), pragmatic definition of the concept of "living" (that can be used by biologists in different contexts). Considering this new theoretical framework, based on its potential objects and objectives, I take the position that synthetic biology has not only the potential to develop its own new approach (which includes methods, objects, and objectives), distinct from other subdisciplines in biology, but also the ability to develop new knowledge on living entities.

Regulation and management of the biosecurity for synthetic biology

Synthetic biology (SynBio) is a high-profile interdiscipline combining engineering with science. As a dual-purpose discipline, SynBio is bringing large changes to many fields and providing great benefits to humans. However, due to its characteristic of complexity and uncertainty, SynBio also presents potential biosafety and biosecurity risks. Biosecurity risks refer to unauthorized access, loss, theft, misuse, diversion or intentional release. If a biosecurity accident happens, it would pose a huge threat to humans and nature. Therefore, it is crucial to establish a set of regulations and management practices for the biosecurity risks of SynBio. In this paper, we summarized the sources of the biosecurity risks of SynBio, from its research materials, products, technologies, information to Do-it-yourself synthetic biology. We reviewed and analyzed the current situation of regulation and management of biosecurity for SynBio in the international community and in China. We found that in most countries and regions, SynBio risks commonly follow the regulation and management of Genetically Modified Organisms which has loopholes if applied to the regulation for SynBio without any amendments. Here, we proposed suggestions for the Chinese-featured regulation and management of biosecurity for SynBio, including a top-to-bottom governing framework, a think-tank implementation mechanism, a Synthetic Biology Laboratory Biosecurity Manual safeguarding system, and strengthening biosecurity education on synthetic biology and self-regulation awareness among relevant personnel. Through this work, we aim to improve the standardized process of biosecurity regulation and management for SynBio in China and thereby map out a peaceful, profitable, and practical development path for synthetic biology.

A New Approach for Environmental Risk Assessments of Living Modified Organisms in South Korea

As the development and use of living modified organisms (LMOs) steadily increase, new risk assessment methods that reflect domestic natural ecosystems are being developed. Although LM plants are fundamentally necessary for environmental risk assessment, the introduced gene products and LMO proteins can replace transgenic plants. However, their use is problematic because of instability and indirect assessment data issues. This study proposes a risk assessment tool and scheme for introducing LMO proteins into genetically modified crops. The agroinfiltration method for transient LMO gene expression in plants is a practical tool which can be used to rapidly verify the putative risks of LMO proteins against insects using an LM crop mimic plant with a stably expressed LMO protein. This study used Nicotiana tabacum leaves, which transiently but stably expressed the insecticidal LMO protein Vip3Aa, for LMO risk assessments against Spodoptera litura. The Vip3Aa protein was stably expressed for 5 d in the agroinfiltrated plants, and the protein was active against target insects for environmental LMO risk assessments. In the toxicity evaluation of Vip3Aa-expressing plants against S. litura, the number of deaths was higher in the Vip3Aa-infiltrated N. tabacum-fed group than that in the recombinant Vip3Aa-fed group. In addition, the cumulative number of deaths in the infiltration leaf-fed group was approximately 12-fold higher than that in the protein-fed group under low dosage conditions. This study aimed to develop a transient expression model which can be used to evaluate whether the overall risk of LMO protein is acceptable for use. These results support the usefulness of the transient expression model using an agroinfiltration method as a rapid risk validation tool for LMO proteins against herbivorous insects before producing transgenic plants.

Marine microbial bioprospecting: Exploitation of marine biodiversity towards biotechnological applications-a review

The increase in the human population causes an increase in the demand for nutritional supplies and energy resources. Thus, the novel, natural, and renewable resources became of great interest. Here comes the optimistic role of bioprospecting as a promising tool to isolate novel and interesting molecules and microorganisms from the marine environment as alternatives to the existing resources. Bioprospecting of marine metabolites and microorganisms with high biotechnological potentials has gained wide interest due to the variability and richness of the marine environment. Indeed, the existence of extreme conditions that increases the adaptability of marine organisms, especially planktons, allow the presence of interesting biological species that are able to produce novel compounds with multiple health benefits and high economical value. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of marine microbial bioprospecting as a growing field of interest. It emphasizes functional bioprospecting that facilitates the discovery of interesting metabolites. Marine bioprospecting was also discussed from a legal aspect for the first time, focusing on the shortcomings of international law. We also summarized the challenges facing bioprospecting in the marine environment including economic feasibility issues.

Emerging regulatory challenges of next-generation synthetic biology

Cell-free synthetic biology is a rapidly developing biotechnology with the potential to solve the world's biggest problems; however, this promise also has implications for global biosecurity and biosafety. Given the current situation of COVID-19 and its economic impact, capitalizing on the potential of cell-free synthetic biology from an economic, biosafety, and biosecurity perspective contributes to our preparedness for the next pandemic, and urges the development of appropriate policies and regulations, together with the necessary mitigation technologies. Proactive involvement from scientists is necessary to avoid misconceptions and assist in the policymaking process.

A Critical Review of the Current Global Ex Situ Conservation System for Plant Agrobiodiversity. II. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Current System and Recommendations for Its Improvement

In this paper, we review gene bank operations that have an influence on the global conservation system, with the intention to identify critical aspects that should be improved for optimum performance. We describe the role of active and base collections and the importance of linking germplasm conservation and use, also in view of new developments in genomics and phenomics that facilitate more effective and efficient conservation and use of plant agrobiodiversity. Strengths, limitations, and opportunities of the existing global ex situ conservation system are discussed, and measures are proposed to achieve a rational, more effective, and efficient global system for germplasm conservation and sustainable use. The proposed measures include filling genetic and geographic gaps in current ex situ collections; determining unique accessions at the global level for long-term conservation in virtual base collections; intensifying existing international collaborations among gene banks and forging collaborations with the botanic gardens community; increasing investment in conservation research and user-oriented supportive research; improved accession-level description of the genetic diversity of crop collections; improvements of the legal and policy framework; and oversight of the proposed network of global base collections.

The Promise of Genetics and Genomics for Improving Invasive Mammal Management on Islands

Invasive species are major contributors to global biodiversity decline. Invasive mammalian species (IMS), in particular, have profound negative effects in island systems that contain disproportionally high levels of species richness and endemism. The eradication and control of IMS have become important conservation tools for managing species invasions on islands, yet these management operations are often subject to failure due to knowledge gaps surrounding species- and system-specific characteristics, including invasion pathways and contemporary migration patterns. Here, we synthesize the literature on ways in which genetic and genomic tools have effectively informed IMS management on islands, specifically associated with the development and modification of biosecurity protocols, and the design and implementation of eradication and control programs. In spite of their demonstrated utility, we then explore the challenges that are preventing genetics and genomics from being implemented more frequently in IMS management operations from both academic and non-academic perspectives, and suggest possible solutions for breaking down these barriers. Finally, we discuss the potential application of genome editing to the future management of invasive species on islands, including the current state of the field and why islands may be effective targets for this emerging technology.

Risk management recommendations for environmental releases of gene drive modified insects

The ability to engineer gene drives (genetic elements that bias their own inheritance) has sparked enthusiasm and concerns. Engineered gene drives could potentially be used to address long-standing challenges in the control of insect disease vectors, agricultural pests and invasive species, or help to rescue endangered species. However, risk concerns and uncertainty associated with potential environmental release of gene drive modified insects (GDMIs) have led some stakeholders to call for a global moratorium on such releases or the application of other strict precautionary measures to mitigate perceived risk assessment and risk management challenges. Instead, we provide recommendations that may help to improve the relevance of risk assessment and risk management frameworks for environmental releases of GDMIs. These recommendations include: (1) developing additional and more practical risk assessment guidance to ensure appropriate levels of safety; (2) making policy goals and regulatory decision-making criteria operational for use in risk assessment so that what constitutes harm is clearly defined; (3) ensuring a more dynamic interplay between risk assessment and risk management to manage uncertainty through closely interlinked pre-release modelling and post-release monitoring; (4) considering potential risks against potential benefits, and comparing them with those of alternative actions to account for a wider (management) context; and (5) implementing a modular, phased approach to authorisations for incremental acceptance and management of risks and uncertainty. Along with providing stakeholder engagement opportunities in the risk analysis process, the recommendations proposed may enable risk managers to make choices that are more proportionate and adaptive to potential risks, uncertainty and benefits of GDMI applications, and socially robust.

Synthetic Biology: Old and New Dilemmas—The Case of Artificial Life

This article aims to examine some of the ethical questions emerging from the use of already existing biotechnological tools and the issues which might occur by synthetic biology’s potential future possibilities. In the first part, the essence of synthetic biology and its relation to the contemporary biotechnological research is analyzed. In the second part, the article examines whether the new biotechnological inventions pose new or revive old moral questions about the ethics of science, engineering, and technology in general. After briefly addressing some of the various issues which are raised by experts, philosophers, but also the general public, concerning synthetic biology in general, it focuses on the topic of “artificial life creation” and presents moral reasons which may or may not allow it. The topic is approached by referring to consequentialist, deontological, but also, virtue theory arguments for and against it and the possibility of a partial permission of “artificial life” experiments, asking whether the benefits outweigh the risks and moral implications is explored. Finally, it proposes an argument in favor of the future exploration of biological innovation, underlying the need for a more balanced access to its beneficial results.

Potential use of gene drive modified insects against disease vectors, agricultural pests and invasive species poses new challenges for risk assessment

Potential future application of engineered gene drives (GDs), which bias their own inheritance and can spread genetic modifications in wild target populations, has sparked both enthusiasm and concern. Engineered GDs in insects could potentially be used to address long-standing challenges in control of disease vectors, agricultural pests and invasive species, or help to rescue endangered species, and thus provide important public benefits. However, there are concerns that the deliberate environmental release of GD modified insects may pose different or new harms to animal and human health and the wider environment, and raise novel challenges for risk assessment. Risk assessors, risk managers, developers, potential applicants and other stakeholders at many levels are currently discussing whether there is a need to develop new or additional risk assessment guidance for the environmental release of GD modified organisms, including insects. Developing new or additional guidance that is useful and practical is a challenge, especially at an international level, as risk assessors, risk managers and many other stakeholders have different, often contrasting, opinions and perspectives toward the environmental release of GD modified organisms, and on the adequacy of current risk assessment frameworks for such organisms. Here, we offer recommendations to overcome some of the challenges associated with the potential future development of new or additional risk assessment guidance for GD modified insects and provide considerations on areas where further risk assessment guidance may be required.

Advances in Synthetic Biology and Biosafety Governance

Tremendous advances in the field of synthetic biology have been witnessed in multiple areas including life sciences, industrial development, and environmental bio-remediation. However, due to the limitations of human understanding in the code of life, any possible intended or unintended uses of synthetic biology, and other unknown reasons, the development and application of this technology has raised concerns over biosafety, biosecurity, and even cyberbiosecurity that they may expose public health and the environment to unknown hazards. Over the past decades, some countries in Europe, America, and Asia have enacted laws and regulations to control the application of synthetic biology techniques in basic and applied research and this has resulted in some benefits. The outbreak of the COVID-19 caused by novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 and various speculations about the origin of this virus have attracted more attention on bio-risk concerns of synthetic biology because of its potential power and uncertainty in the synthesis and engineering of living organisms. Therefore, it is crucial to scrutinize the control measures put in place to ensure appropriate use, promote the development of synthetic biology, and strengthen the governance of pathogen-related research, although the true origin of coronavirus remains hotly debated and unresolved. This article reviews the recent progress made in the field of synthetic biology and combs laws and regulations in governing bio-risk issues. We emphasize the urgent need for legislative and regulatory constraints and oversight to address the biological risks of synthetic biology.

Building a biofoundry

A biofoundry provides automation and analytics infrastructure to support the engineering of biological systems. It allows scientists to perform synthetic biology and aligned experimentation on a high-throughput scale, massively increasing the solution space that can be examined for any given problem or question. However, establishing a biofoundry is a challenging undertaking, with numerous technical and operational considerations that must be addressed. Using collated learnings, here we outline several considerations that should be addressed prior to and during establishment. These include drivers for establishment, institutional models, funding and revenue models, personnel, hardware and software, data management, interoperability, client engagement and biosecurity issues. The high cost of establishment and operation means that developing a long-term business model for biofoundry sustainability in the context of funding frameworks, actual and potential client base, and costing structure is critical. Moreover, since biofoundries are leading a conceptual shift in experimental design for bioengineering, sustained outreach and engagement with the research community are needed to grow the client base. Recognition of the significant, long-term financial investment required and an understanding of the complexities of operationalization is critical for a sustainable biofoundry venture. To ensure state-of-the-art technology is integrated into planning, extensive engagement with existing facilities and community groups, such as the Global Biofoundries Alliance, is recommended.

Adequacy and sufficiency evaluation of existing EFSA guidelines for the molecular characterisation, environmental risk assessment and post-market environmental monitoring of genetically modified insects containing engineered gene drives

Advances in molecular and synthetic biology are enabling the engineering of gene drives in insects for disease vector/pest control. Engineered gene drives (that bias their own inheritance) can be designed either to suppress interbreeding target populations or modify them with a new genotype. Depending on the engineered gene drive system, theoretically, a genetic modification of interest could spread through target populations and persist indefinitely, or be restricted in its spread or persistence. While research on engineered gene drives and their applications in insects is advancing at a fast pace, it will take several years for technological developments to move to practical applications for deliberate release into the environment. Some gene drive modified insects (GDMIs) have been tested experimentally in the laboratory, but none has been assessed in small-scale confined field trials or in open release trials as yet. There is concern that the deliberate release of GDMIs in the environment may have possible irreversible and unintended consequences. As a proactive measure, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has been requested by the European Commission to review whether its previously published guidelines for the risk assessment of genetically modified animals (EFSA, 2012 and 2013), including insects (GMIs), are adequate and sufficient for GDMIs, primarily disease vectors, agricultural pests and invasive species, for deliberate release into the environment. Under this mandate, EFSA was not requested to develop risk assessment guidelines for GDMIs. In this Scientific Opinion, the Panel on Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) concludes that EFSA's guidelines are adequate, but insufficient for the molecular characterisation (MC), environmental risk assessment (ERA) and post-market environmental monitoring (PMEM) of GDMIs. While the MC,ERA and PMEM of GDMIs can build on the existing risk assessment framework for GMIs that do not contain engineered gene drives, there are specific areas where further guidance is needed for GDMIs.