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Pereira IS, da Cunha M, Leal IP, Luís MP, Gonçalves P, Gonçalves C, Mota LJ. Identification of homologs of the Chlamydia trachomatis effector CteG reveals a family of Chlamydiaceae type III secreted proteins that can be delivered into host cells. Med Microbiol Immunol 2024; 213:15. [PMID: 39008129 PMCID: PMC11249467 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-024-00798-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Chlamydiae are a large group of obligate endosymbionts of eukaryotes that includes the Chlamydiaceae family, comprising several animal pathogens. Among Chlamydiaceae, Chlamydia trachomatis causes widespread ocular and urogenital infections in humans. Like many bacterial pathogens, all Chlamydiae manipulate host cells by injecting them with type III secretion effector proteins. We previously characterized the C. trachomatis effector CteG, which localizes at the host cell Golgi and plasma membrane during distinct phases of the chlamydial infectious cycle. Here, we show that CteG is a Chlamydiaceae-specific effector with over 60 homologs phylogenetically categorized into two distinct clades (CteG I and CteG II) and exhibiting several inparalogs and outparalogs. Notably, cteG I homologs are syntenic to C. trachomatis cteG, whereas cteG II homologs are syntenic among themselves but not with C. trachomatis cteG. This indicates a complex evolution of cteG homologs, which is unique among C. trachomatis effectors, marked by numerous events of gene duplication and loss. Despite relatively modest sequence conservation, nearly all tested CteG I and CteG II proteins were identified as type III secretion substrates using Yersinia as a heterologous bacterial host. Moreover, most of the type III secreted CteG I and CteG II homologs were delivered by C. trachomatis into host cells, where they localized at the Golgi region and cell periphery. Overall, this provided insights into the evolution of bacterial effectors and revealed a Chlamydiaceae family of type III secreted proteins that underwent substantial divergence during evolution while conserving the capacity to localize at specific host cell compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Serrano Pereira
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Maria da Cunha
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Inês Pacheco Leal
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Maria Pequito Luís
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Paula Gonçalves
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Carla Gonçalves
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Luís Jaime Mota
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal.
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Life Sciences, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal.
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Turman BJ, Darville T, O'Connell CM. Plasmid-mediated virulence in Chlamydia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1251135. [PMID: 37662000 PMCID: PMC10469868 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1251135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis infection of ocular conjunctiva can lead to blindness, while infection of the female genital tract can lead to chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancy, and/or infertility. Conjunctival and fallopian tube inflammation and the resulting disease sequelae are attributed to immune responses induced by chlamydial infection at these mucosal sites. The conserved chlamydial plasmid has been implicated in enhancing infection, via improved host cell entry and exit, and accelerating innate inflammatory responses that lead to tissue damage. The chlamydial plasmid encodes eight open reading frames, three of which have been associated with virulence: a secreted protein, Pgp3, and putative transcriptional regulators, Pgp4 and Pgp5. Although Pgp3 is an important plasmid-encoded virulence factor, recent studies suggest that chlamydial plasmid-mediated virulence extends beyond the expression of Pgp3. In this review, we discuss studies of genital, ocular, and gastrointestinal infection with C. trachomatis or C. muridarum that shed light on the role of the plasmid in disease development, and the potential for tissue and species-specific differences in plasmid-mediated pathogenesis. We also review evidence that plasmid-associated inflammation can be independent of bacterial burden. The functions of each of the plasmid-encoded proteins and potential molecular mechanisms for their role(s) in chlamydial virulence are discussed. Although the understanding of plasmid-associated virulence has expanded within the last decade, many questions related to how and to what extent the plasmid influences chlamydial infectivity and inflammation remain unknown, particularly with respect to human infections. Elucidating the answers to these questions could improve our understanding of how chlamydia augment infection and inflammation to cause disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breanna J. Turman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Toni Darville
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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Wan W, Li D, Li D, Jiao J. Advances in genetic manipulation of Chlamydia trachomatis. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1209879. [PMID: 37449211 PMCID: PMC10337758 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1209879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis, one species of Chlamydia spp., has the greatest impact on human health and is the main cause of bacterial sexually transmitted diseases and preventable blindness among all Chamydia spp. species. The obligate intracellular parasitism and unique biphasic developmental cycle of C. trachomatis are the main barriers for the development of tools of genetic manipulation. The past decade has witnessed significant gains in genetic manipulation of C. trachomatis, including chemical mutagenesis, group II intron-based targeted gene knockout, fluorescence-reported allelic exchange mutagenesis (FRAEM), CRISPR interference (CRISPRi) and the recently developed transposon mutagenesis. In this review, we discuss the current status of genetic manipulations of C. trachomatis and highlights new challenges in the nascent field of Chlamydia genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqiang Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Danni Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Center for Pathogen Biology and Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of the Ministry of Education, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jun Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
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Steiert B, Icardi CM, Faris R, McCaslin PN, Smith P, Klingelhutz AJ, Yau PM, Weber MM. The Chlamydia trachomatis type III-secreted effector protein CteG induces centrosome amplification through interactions with centrin-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2303487120. [PMID: 37155906 PMCID: PMC10193975 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2303487120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center of the cell and is crucial for mitotic spindle assembly, chromosome segregation, and cell division. Centrosome duplication is tightly controlled, yet several pathogens, most notably oncogenic viruses, perturb this process leading to increased centrosome numbers. Infection by the obligate intracellular bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis (C.t.) correlates with blocked cytokinesis, supernumerary centrosomes, and multipolar spindles; however, the mechanisms behind how C.t. induces these cellular abnormalities remain largely unknown. Here we show that the secreted effector protein, CteG, binds to centrin-2 (CETN2), a key structural component of centrosomes and regulator of centriole duplication. Our data indicate that both CteG and CETN2 are necessary for infection-induced centrosome amplification, in a manner that requires the C-terminus of CteG. Strikingly, CteG is important for in vivo infection and growth in primary cervical cells but is dispensable for growth in immortalized cells, highlighting the importance of this effector protein to chlamydial infection. These findings begin to provide mechanistic insight into how C.t. induces cellular abnormalities during infection, but also indicate that obligate intracellular bacteria may contribute to cellular transformation events. Centrosome amplification mediated by CteG-CETN2 interactions may explain why chlamydial infection leads to an increased risk of cervical or ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna Steiert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Carolina M. Icardi
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Robert Faris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Paige N. McCaslin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Parker Smith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Aloysius J. Klingelhutz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA52242
| | - Peter M. Yau
- Carver Biotechnology Center–Protein Sciences Facility, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL61801
| | - Mary M. Weber
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA52242
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Luís MP, Pereira IS, Bugalhão JN, Simões CN, Mota C, Romão MJ, Mota LJ. The Chlamydia trachomatis IncM Protein Interferes with Host Cell Cytokinesis, Centrosome Positioning, and Golgi Distribution and Contributes to the Stability of the Pathogen-Containing Vacuole. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0040522. [PMID: 36877064 PMCID: PMC10112248 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00405-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen that causes ocular and urogenital infections in humans. The ability of C. trachomatis to grow intracellularly in a pathogen-containing vacuole (known as an inclusion) depends on chlamydial effector proteins transported into the host cell by a type III secretion system. Among these effectors, several inclusion membrane proteins (Incs) insert in the vacuolar membrane. Here, we show that human cell lines infected by a C. trachomatis strain deficient for Inc CT288/CTL0540 (renamed IncM) displayed less multinucleation than when infected by IncM-producing strains (wild type or complemented). This indicated that IncM is involved in the ability of Chlamydia to inhibit host cell cytokinesis. The capacity of IncM to induce multinucleation in infected cells was shown to be conserved among its chlamydial homologues and appeared to require its two larger regions predicted to be exposed to the host cell cytosol. C. trachomatis-infected cells also displayed IncM-dependent defects in centrosome positioning, Golgi distribution around the inclusion, and morphology and stability of the inclusion. The altered morphology of inclusions containing IncM-deficient C. trachomatis was further affected by depolymerization of host cell microtubules. This was not observed after depolymerization of microfilaments, and inclusions containing wild-type C. trachomatis did not alter their morphology upon depolymerization of microtubules. Overall, these findings suggest that IncM may exert its effector function by acting directly or indirectly on host cell microtubules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Pequito Luís
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Inês Serrano Pereira
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Joana N. Bugalhão
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Catarina N. Simões
- Department of Life Sciences, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Cristiano Mota
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Department of Chemistry, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Maria João Romão
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Department of Chemistry, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Luís Jaime Mota
- Associate Laboratory i4HB, Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, UCIBIO, Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, NOVA School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, Caparica, Portugal
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Steiert B, Faris R, Weber MM. In Search of a Mechanistic Link between Chlamydia trachomatis-Induced Cellular Pathophysiology and Oncogenesis. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0044322. [PMID: 36695575 PMCID: PMC9933725 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00443-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Centrosome duplication and cell cycle progression are essential cellular processes that must be tightly controlled to ensure cellular integrity. Despite their complex regulatory mechanisms, microbial pathogens have evolved sophisticated strategies to co-opt these processes to promote infection. While misregulation of these processes can greatly benefit the pathogen, the consequences to the host cell can be devastating. During infection, the obligate intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis induces gross cellular abnormalities, including supernumerary centrosomes, multipolar spindles, and defects in cytokinesis. While these observations were made over 15 years ago, identification of the bacterial factors responsible has been elusive due to the genetic intractability of Chlamydia. Recent advances in techniques of genetic manipulation now allows for the direct linking of bacterial virulence factors to manipulation of centrosome duplication and cell cycle progression. In this review, we discuss the impact, both immediate and downstream, of C. trachomatis infection on the host cell cycle regulatory apparatus and centrosome replication. We highlight links between C. trachomatis infection and cervical and ovarian cancers and speculate whether perturbations of the cell cycle and centrosome are sufficient to initiate cellular transformation. We also explore the biological mechanisms employed by Inc proteins and other secreted effector proteins implicated in the perturbation of these host cell pathways. Future work is needed to better understand the nuances of each effector's mechanism and their collective impact on Chlamydia's ability to induce host cellular abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianna Steiert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Robert Faris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Mary M. Weber
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
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Virulence Protein Pgp3 Is Insufficient To Mediate Plasmid-Dependent Infectivity of Chlamydia trachomatis. Infect Immun 2023; 91:e0039222. [PMID: 36722979 PMCID: PMC9933628 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00392-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common cause of infectious blindness and sexually transmitted bacterial infection globally. C. trachomatis contains a conserved chlamydial plasmid with eight coding sequences. Plasmid-cured Chlamydia strains are attenuated and display reduced infectivity in cell culture and in vivo genital infection of female mice. Mutants that do not express the plasmid-encoded proteins Pgp3, a secreted protein with unknown function, or Pgp4, a putative regulator of pgp3 and other chromosomal loci, display an infectivity defect similar to plasmid-deficient strains. Our objective was to determine the combined and individual contributions of Pgp3 and Pgp4 to this phenotype. Deletion of pgp3 and pgp4 resulted in an infectivity defect detected by competition assay in cell culture and in mice. The pgp3 locus was placed under the control of an anhydrotetracycline-inducible promoter to examine the individual contributions of Pgp3 and Pgp4 to infectivity. Expression of pgp3 was induced 100- to 1,000-fold after anhydrotetracycline administration, regardless of the presence or absence of pgp4. However, secreted Pgp3 was not detected when pgp4 was deleted, confirming a role for Pgp4 in Pgp3 secretion. We discovered that expression of pgp3 or pgp4 alone was insufficient to restore normal infectivity, which required expression of both Pgp3 and Pgp4. These results suggest Pgp3 and Pgp4 are both required for infectivity during C. trachomatis infection. Future studies are required to determine the mechanism by which Pgp3 and Pgp4 influence chlamydial infectivity as well as the potential roles of Pgp4-regulated loci.
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Karanovic U, Lei L, Martens CA, Barbian K, McClarty G, Caldwell HD, Yang C. TargeTron inactivation of plasmid-regulated Chlamydia trachomatis CT084 results in a nonlytic phenotype. Pathog Dis 2023; 81:ftad026. [PMID: 37804183 PMCID: PMC10589100 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftad026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Revised: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is an obligate intracellular bacterium that causes blinding trachoma and sexually transmitted disease. The chlamydial plasmid is a critical virulence factor in the pathogenesis of these diseases. Plasmid gene protein 4 (Pgp4) plays a major role in chlamydial virulence by regulating the expression of both chromosomal genes and Pgp3. Despite the importance of Pgp4 in mediating lytic exit from host cells the pathogenic mechanism by which it functions is unknown. CT084 is a highly conserved chromosomal gene with homology to phospholipase D. We showed CT084 expression is regulated by Pgp4 and expressed late in the chlamydial developmental cycle. To investigate the function of CT084 in chlamydial lytic exit from infected cells, we made a CT084 null strain (ct084::bla) by using Targetron. The ct084::bla strain grew normally in vitro compared to wild-type strain; however, the strain did not lyse infected cells and produced significantly less and smaller plaques. Collectively, our finding shows Pgp4-regulated CT084-mediated chlamydia lytic exit from infected host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Una Karanovic
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 208952, United States
| | - Lei Lei
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 208952, United States
| | - Craig A Martens
- Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Hamilton, Montana, 59840, United States
| | - Kent Barbian
- Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Hamilton, Montana, 59840, United States
| | - Grant McClarty
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Harlan D Caldwell
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 208952, United States
| | - Chunfu Yang
- School of Public Health and Emergency Management, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
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