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Baldassarro VA, Alastra G, Cescatti M, Quadalti C, Lorenzini L, Giardino L, Calzà L. SARS-CoV-2-related peptides induce endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition in endothelial capillary cells derived from different body districts: focus on membrane (M) protein. Cell Tissue Res 2024:10.1007/s00441-024-03900-y. [PMID: 38953987 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-024-03900-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for the COVID-19, may lead to multiple organ dysfunctions and long-term complications. The induction of microvascular dysfunction is regarded as a main player in these pathological processes. To investigate the possible impact of SARS-CoV-2-induced endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) on fibrosis in "long-COVID" syndrome, we used primary cultures of human microvascular cells derived from the lungs, as the main infection target, compared to cells derived from different organs (dermis, heart, kidney, liver, brain) and to the HUVEC cell line. To mimic the virus action, we used mixed SARS-CoV-2 peptide fragments (PepTivator®) of spike (S), nucleocapsid (N), and membrane (M) proteins. TGFβ2 and cytokine mix (IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα) were used as positive controls. The percentage of cells positive to mesenchymal and endothelial markers was quantified by high content screening. We demonstrated that S+N+M mix induces irreversible EndMT in all analyzed endothelial cells via the TGFβ pathway, as demonstrated by ApoA1 treatment. We then tested the contribution of single peptides in lung and brain cells, demonstrating that EndMT is triggered by M peptide. This was confirmed by transfection experiment, inducing the endogenous expression of the glycoprotein M in lung-derived cells. In conclusion, we demonstrated that SARS-CoV-2 peptides induce EndMT in microvascular endothelial cells from multiple body districts. The different peptides play different roles in the induction and maintenance of the virus-mediated effects, which are organ-specific. These results corroborate the hypothesis of the SARS-CoV-2-mediated microvascular damage underlying the multiple organ dysfunctions and the long-COVID syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito Antonio Baldassarro
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre for Industrial Research in Health Sciences and Technology ICIR-HST, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Alastra
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Corinne Quadalti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology (FaBiT), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luca Lorenzini
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre for Industrial Research in Health Sciences and Technology ICIR-HST, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luciana Giardino
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences (DIMEVET), University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre for Industrial Research in Health Sciences and Technology ICIR-HST, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Laura Calzà
- Interdepartmental Centre for Industrial Research in Health Sciences and Technology ICIR-HST, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology (FaBiT), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
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2
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López-Ayllón BD, Marin S, Fernández MF, García-García T, Fernández-Rodríguez R, de Lucas-Rius A, Redondo N, Mendoza-García L, Foguet C, Grigas J, Calvet A, Villalba JM, Gómez MJR, Megías D, Mandracchia B, Luque D, Lozano JJ, Calvo C, Herrán UM, Thomson TM, Garrido JJ, Cascante M, Montoya M. Metabolic and mitochondria alterations induced by SARS-CoV-2 accessory proteins ORF3a, ORF9b, ORF9c and ORF10. J Med Virol 2024; 96:e29752. [PMID: 38949191 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.29752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Antiviral signaling, immune response and cell metabolism are dysregulated by SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Here, we show that SARS-CoV-2 accessory proteins ORF3a, ORF9b, ORF9c and ORF10 induce a significant mitochondrial and metabolic reprogramming in A549 lung epithelial cells. While ORF9b, ORF9c and ORF10 induced largely overlapping transcriptomes, ORF3a induced a distinct transcriptome, including the downregulation of numerous genes with critical roles in mitochondrial function and morphology. On the other hand, all four ORFs altered mitochondrial dynamics and function, but only ORF3a and ORF9c induced a marked alteration in mitochondrial cristae structure. Genome-Scale Metabolic Models identified both metabolic flux reprogramming features both shared across all accessory proteins and specific for each accessory protein. Notably, a downregulated amino acid metabolism was observed in ORF9b, ORF9c and ORF10, while an upregulated lipid metabolism was distinctly induced by ORF3a. These findings reveal metabolic dependencies and vulnerabilities prompted by SARS-CoV-2 accessory proteins that may be exploited to identify new targets for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca D López-Ayllón
- Viral Immunology Lab, Molecular Biomedicine Department, BICS Unit. Margarita Salas Center for Biological Research (CIB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Silvia Marin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases (CIBEREHD), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marco Fariñas Fernández
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Tránsito García-García
- Immunogenomics and Molecular Pathogenesis Group, UIC Zoonoses and Emergent Diseases ENZOEM, Department of Genetics, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Maimónides Biomedical Research, Institute of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Raúl Fernández-Rodríguez
- Immunogenomics and Molecular Pathogenesis Group, UIC Zoonoses and Emergent Diseases ENZOEM, Department of Genetics, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Maimónides Biomedical Research, Institute of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Ana de Lucas-Rius
- Viral Immunology Lab, Molecular Biomedicine Department, BICS Unit. Margarita Salas Center for Biological Research (CIB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Natalia Redondo
- Unit of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital '12 de Octubre', Institute for Health Research Hospital '12 de Octubre' (imas12), Madrid, Spain
- Centre for Biomedical Research Network on Infectious Diseases (CIBERINFEC), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Mendoza-García
- Viral Immunology Lab, Molecular Biomedicine Department, BICS Unit. Margarita Salas Center for Biological Research (CIB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carles Foguet
- British Heart Foundation Cardiovascular Epidemiology Unit and Victor Phillip Dahdaleh Heart and Lung Research Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Juozas Grigas
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Kaunas, Lithuania
- Institute of Microbiology and Virology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Alba Calvet
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Manuel Villalba
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - María Josefa Rodríguez Gómez
- Scientific-Technical Central Units, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Spain
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa" (CSIC-UAM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Diego Megías
- Scientific-Technical Central Units, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Biagio Mandracchia
- Scientific-Technical Central Units, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Spain
- ETSI Telecommunication, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Daniel Luque
- Scientific-Technical Central Units, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Majadahonda, Spain
- Electron Microscope Unit, Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Juan José Lozano
- CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases (CIBEREHD), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Calvo
- Barcelona Institute for Molecular Biology (IBMB-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Unai Merino Herrán
- Viral Immunology Lab, Molecular Biomedicine Department, BICS Unit. Margarita Salas Center for Biological Research (CIB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Timothy M Thomson
- CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases (CIBEREHD), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Barcelona Institute for Molecular Biology (IBMB-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
- Translational Research and Computational Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Peruvian University Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Perú
| | - Juan J Garrido
- Immunogenomics and Molecular Pathogenesis Group, UIC Zoonoses and Emergent Diseases ENZOEM, Department of Genetics, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Maimónides Biomedical Research, Institute of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Marta Cascante
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
- CIBER of Hepatic and Digestive Diseases (CIBEREHD), Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine of University of Barcelona (IBUB), University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Montoya
- Viral Immunology Lab, Molecular Biomedicine Department, BICS Unit. Margarita Salas Center for Biological Research (CIB-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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Yu M, Li J, Gao W, Li Z, Zhang W. Multiple E3 ligases act as antiviral factors against SARS-CoV-2 via inducing the ubiquitination and degradation of ORF9b. J Virol 2024; 98:e0162423. [PMID: 38709105 PMCID: PMC11237466 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01624-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) open reading frame 9b (ORF9b) antagonizes the antiviral type I and III interferon (IFN) responses and is ubiquitinated and degraded via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. However, E3 ubiquitin ligases that mediate the polyubiquitination and degradation of ORF9b remain unknown. In this study, we identified 14 E3 ligases that specifically bind to SARS-CoV-2 ORF9b. Specifically, three E3 ligases, HECT, UBA, and WWE domain-containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (HUWE1), ubiquitin protein ligase E3 component n-recognin 4 (UBR4), and UBR5, induced K48-linked polyubiquitination and degradation of ORF9b, thereby attenuating ORF9b-mediated inhibition of the IFN response and SARS-CoV-2 replication. Moreover, each E3 ligase performed this function independent of the other two E3 ligases. Therefore, the three E3 ligases identified in this study as anti-SARS-CoV-2 host factors provide novel molecular insight into the virus-host interaction.IMPORTANCEUbiquitination is an important post-translational modification that regulates multiple biological processes, including viral replication. Identification of E3 ubiquitin ligases that target viral proteins for degradation can provide novel targets for antagonizing viral infections. Here, we identified multiple E3 ligases, including HECT, UBA, and WWE domain-containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1 (HUWE1), ubiquitin protein ligase E3 component n-recognin 4 (UBR4), and UBR5, that ubiquitinated and induced the degradation of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) open reading frame 9b (ORF9b), an interferon (IFN) antagonist, thereby enhancing IFN production and attenuating SARS-CoV-2 replication. Our study provides new possibilities for drug development targeting the interaction between E3 ligases and ORF9b.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Yu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Infectious Diseases and Pathogen Biology Center, Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of The Ministry of Education, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Department of Geriatrics and Special medical treatment, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Geriatrics and Special medical treatment, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Wenying Gao
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Infectious Diseases and Pathogen Biology Center, Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of The Ministry of Education, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Zhaolong Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Infectious Diseases and Pathogen Biology Center, Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of The Ministry of Education, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Wenyan Zhang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Infectious Diseases and Pathogen Biology Center, Key Laboratory of Organ Regeneration and Transplantation of The Ministry of Education, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Institute of Virology and AIDS Research, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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Khalil AM, Nogales A, Martínez-Sobrido L, Mostafa A. Antiviral responses versus virus-induced cellular shutoff: a game of thrones between influenza A virus NS1 and SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1357866. [PMID: 38375361 PMCID: PMC10875036 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1357866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Following virus recognition of host cell receptors and viral particle/genome internalization, viruses replicate in the host via hijacking essential host cell machinery components to evade the provoked antiviral innate immunity against the invading pathogen. Respiratory viral infections are usually acute with the ability to activate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in/on host cells, resulting in the production and release of interferons (IFNs), proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) to reduce virus fitness and mitigate infection. Nevertheless, the game between viruses and the host is a complicated and dynamic process, in which they restrict each other via specific factors to maintain their own advantages and win this game. The primary role of the non-structural protein 1 (NS1 and Nsp1) of influenza A viruses (IAV) and the pandemic severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), respectively, is to control antiviral host-induced innate immune responses. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the genesis, spatial structure, viral and cellular interactors, and the mechanisms underlying the unique biological functions of IAV NS1 and SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 in infected host cells. We also highlight the role of both non-structural proteins in modulating viral replication and pathogenicity. Eventually, and because of their important role during viral infection, we also describe their promising potential as targets for antiviral therapy and the development of live attenuated vaccines (LAV). Conclusively, both IAV NS1 and SARS-CoV-2 Nsp1 play an important role in virus-host interactions, viral replication, and pathogenesis, and pave the way to develop novel prophylactic and/or therapeutic interventions for the treatment of these important human respiratory viral pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Magdy Khalil
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Department of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Aitor Nogales
- Center for Animal Health Research, CISA-INIA-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Martínez-Sobrido
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Ahmed Mostafa
- Disease Intervention & Prevention and Host Pathogen Interactions Programs, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
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5
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Xie Y, Chen C, Zhang D, Jiao Z, Chen Y, Wang G, Tan Y, Zhang W, Xiao S, Peng G, Shi Y. Diversity for endoribonuclease nsp15-mediated regulation of alpha-coronavirus propagation and virulence. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0220923. [PMID: 37938022 PMCID: PMC10715224 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02209-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Understanding the role of the endoribonuclease non-structural protein 15 (nsp15) (EndoU) in coronavirus (CoV) infection and pathogenesis is essential for vaccine target discovery. Whether the EndoU activity of CoV nsp15, as a virulence-related protein, has a diverse effect on viral virulence needs to be further explored. Here, we found that the transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) nsp15 proteins antagonize SeV-induced interferon-β (IFN-β) production in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Interestingly, compared with wild-type infection, infection with EnUmt-TGEV or EnUmt-FIPV did not change the IFN-β response or reduce viral propagation in immunocompetent cells. The results of animal experiments showed that EnUmt viruses did not reduce the clinical presentation and mortality caused by TGEV and FIPV. Our findings enrich the understanding of nsp15-mediated regulation of alpha-CoV propagation and virulence and reveal that the conserved functions of nonstructural proteins have diverse effects on the pathogenicity of CoVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunfei Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Chener Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Ding Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zhe Jiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yixi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Gang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yubei Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wanpo Zhang
- Veterinary Pathology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shaobo Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Guiqing Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yuejun Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
- Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, The Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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Grand RJ. SARS-CoV-2 and the DNA damage response. J Gen Virol 2023; 104:001918. [PMID: 37948194 PMCID: PMC10768691 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic was caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). COVID-19 is characterized by respiratory distress, multiorgan dysfunction and, in some cases, death. The virus is also responsible for post-COVID-19 condition (commonly referred to as 'long COVID'). SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus with a genome of approximately 30 kb, which encodes 26 proteins. It has been reported to affect multiple pathways in infected cells, resulting, in many cases, in the induction of a 'cytokine storm' and cellular senescence. Perhaps because it is an RNA virus, replicating largely in the cytoplasm, the effect of SARS-Cov-2 on genome stability and DNA damage responses (DDRs) has received relatively little attention. However, it is now becoming clear that the virus causes damage to cellular DNA, as shown by the presence of micronuclei, DNA repair foci and increased comet tails in infected cells. This review considers recent evidence indicating how SARS-CoV-2 causes genome instability, deregulates the cell cycle and targets specific components of DDR pathways. The significance of the virus's ability to cause cellular senescence is also considered, as are the implications of genome instability for patients suffering from long COVID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger J. Grand
- Institute for Cancer and Genomic Science, The Medical School, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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