Arterial Stiffness in a Cohort of Young People Living With Perinatal HIV and HIV Negative Young People in England

Interferon Upregulation Associates with Insulin Resistance in Humans

In humans, insulin resistance is a physiological response to infections developed to supply sufficient energy to the activated immune system. This metabolic adaptation facilitates the immune response but usually persists after the recovery period of the infection and predisposes the hosts to type 2 diabetes and vascular injury. In patients with diabetes, superimposed insulin resistance worsens metabolic control and promotes diabetic ketoacidosis. Pathogenic mechanisms underlying insulin resistance during microbial invasions remain to be fully defined. However, interferons cause insulin resistance in healthy subjects and other population groups, and their production is increased during infections, suggesting that this group of molecules may contribute to reduced insulin sensitivity. In agreement with this notion, gene expression profiles (transcriptomes) from patients with insulin resistance show a robust overexpression of interferon- stimulated genes (interferon signature). In addition, serum levels of interferon and surrogates for interferon activity are elevated in patients with insulin resistance. Circulating levels of interferon- γ-inducible protein-10, neopterin, and apolipoprotein L1 correlate with insulin resistance manifestations, such as hypertriglyceridemia, reduced HDL-c, visceral fat, and homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance. Furthermore, interferon downregulation improves insulin resistance. Antimalarials such as hydroxychloroquine reduce interferon production and improve insulin resistance, reducing the risk for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease. In addition, diverse clinical conditions that feature interferon upregulation are associated with insulin resistance, suggesting that interferon may be a common factor promoting this adaptive response. Among these conditions are systemic lupus erythematosus, sarcoidosis, and infections with severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2, human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis C virus, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Cardiovascular health in people with perinatally acquired HIV - where do we stand?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

HIV-associated cardiac disease was well recognized in the preantiretroviral (ART) era among children with perinatally-acquired HIV infection (PHIV). While ART has dramatically improved survival, it has become increasingly apparent that individuals with PHIV continue to experience multisystem co-morbidities. We review the cardiac and vascular manifestations in people growing up with PHIV in the ART era.

RECENT FINDINGS

ART has resulted in a drop in incidence of serious cardiac morbidity. However, there is a substantial body of evidence that demonstrates that cardiac and vascular structural and functional abnormalities, mostly subclinical, are common in people with PHIV taking ART. Studies have considerable heterogeneity with respect to types of cardiovascular assessments used. HIV-mediated chronic inflammation and potentially effects of ART contribute to these abnormalities. The long-term clinical significance of these abnormalities remains unknown as studies have mainly been cross-sectional, but it is likely that the burden of cardiovascular disease will grow as individuals with PHIV age and the prevalence of traditional risk factors increases.

SUMMARY

Understanding the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease in PHIV, is critical to inform screening and interventional strategies. Longitudinal studies are also needed to understand the natural history of cardiovascular abnormalities and incidence of clinical outcomes.

Cardiometabolic complications in children and adolescents with HIV on antiretroviral therapy

INTRODUCTION

The course of HIV infection has changed radically with the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART), which has significantly reduced mortality and improved quality of life. However, antiretroviral drugs can cause adverse effects, including cardiometabolic complications and diseases, which are among the most common. Compared to the adult population, there are fewer studies in the pediatric population on treatment-related complications. The purpose of this review is to provide an update on the literature regarding cardiometabolic complications and diseases in children and adolescents with HIV.

AREAS COVERED

A comprehensive literature review was conducted using PubMed and related bibliographies to provide an overview of the current knowledge of metabolic complications (dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, lipodystrophy, weight gain and liver complications) and diseases (prediabetes/diabetes and cardiovascular diseases) associated with ART in children and adolescents with HIV.

EXPERT OPINION

Metabolic complications are conditions that need to be closely monitored in children and adolescents with HIV, as they increase the risk of early development of non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease. Key areas for improvement include ensuring access to treatment, reducing side effects and improving diagnostic capabilities. Overcoming existing challenges will require collaborative efforts across disciplines, advances in technology, and targeted interventions to address socioeconomic disparities.

Health-Related Physical Fitness Evaluation in HIV-Diagnosed Children and Adolescents: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Health-related physical fitness has been widely used to investigate the adverse effects of HIV infection/ART in children and adolescents. However, methods/protocols and cut-points applied for investigating health-related physical fitness are not clear. The aim of this scoping review was to map the literature to identify gaps in knowledge regarding the methods/protocols and cut-points.

METHODS

A scoping review, following the Joana Briggs Institute (JBI) guidelines, was conducted through ten major databases. Search followed the PCC strategy to construct block of terms related to population (children and adolescents), concept (health-related physical fitness components) and context (HIV infection).

RESULTS

The search resulted in 7545 studies. After duplicate removal, titles and abstracts reading and full text assessment, 246 studies were included in the scoping review. Body composition was the most investigated component (n = 244), followed by muscular strength/endurance (n = 23), cardiorespiratory fitness (n = 15) and flexibility (n = 4). The World Health Organization growth curves, and nationals' surveys were the most reference values applied to classify body composition (n = 149), followed by internal cut-points (n = 30) and cut-points developed through small populations (n = 16). Cardiorespiratory fitness was classified through cut-points from three different assessment batteries, as well as cut-points developed through studies with small populations, muscular strength/endurance and flexibility were classified through the same cut-points from five different assessment batteries.

CONCLUSIONS

The research on muscular strength/endurance, cardiorespiratory fitness and flexibility has been scarcely explored. The lack of studies that investigated method usability as well as reference values was evidenced.

Cardio-Metabolic Health of Offspring Exposed in Utero to Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus and Anti-Retroviral Treatment: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Antiretroviral treatment (ART) use during pregnancy continues to rise as it is known to decrease the likelihood of HIV transmission from mother to child. However, it is still unknown whether foetal exposure to (ART) may affect the foetal environment, predisposing the offspring to cardiometabolic risk. Therefore, the aim of this study was to systematically review the cardio-metabolic effects of in utero exposure to HIV/ART on offspring.

METHODS

We carried out a systematic review and obtained literature from the Google scholar, PubMed, ProQuest, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. Two independent reviewers evaluated the titles, abstracts, and full-length English contents. Data from the eligible studies were included.

RESULTS

The search yielded 7596 records. After assessing all of these records, 35 of the full-length articles were included in this systematic review. Several studies showed that low birth weight, small head circumference, and altered mitochondrial content were more common among HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) children compared to HIV-unexposed uninfected children (HUU). A few studies demonstrated elevated triglyceride levels, lower levels of insulin, and increased blood pressure, oxidative stress, vascular dysfunction, cardiac damage, and myocardial dysfunction among HEU children compared with HUU children.

CONCLUSION

Most findings showed that there were cardio-metabolic health risk factors among HEU children, indicating that maternal exposure to HIV and ART may negatively affect foetal health, which may lead to cardio-metabolic morbidity later in life.

The effects of experimental, meteorological, and physiological factors on short-term repeated pulse wave velocity measurements, and measurement difficulties: A randomized crossover study with two devices

Background

Large longitudinal studies with repeated pulse wave velocity (PWV) measurements, a direct measure of arterial stiffness, are required to realize the full potential of arterial stiffness in clinical practice. To facilitate such studies it is important to increase the power of a study by reducing within-subject variability of PWV, and to ease the use of a PWV device in clinical settings by minimizing PWV measurement difficulties.

Methods

We systematically investigated experimental setting and meteorological conditions, as well as physiological factors and participant characteristics, to determine whether and to what extent they affected: between- and within-subjects variability of PWV recordings, and measurement difficulties of a particular device. We conducted a 2-week longitudinal block-randomized cross-over study with two blinded observers and two commonly used devices: applanation tonometry SphygmoCor CvMS and oscillometric Arteriograph to assess carotid-femoral (cfPWV) or aortic (PWVao) PWV, respectively. Our sample had uniform and wide-spread distribution of age, blood pressures, hypertensive status and BMI. Each participant (N = 35) was recorded 12 times over 3 visiting days, 7 days apart. On each day, recordings were made twice in the morning (7-10 a.m.) and afternoon (16-18 p.m.). Data were analyzed using multilevel mixed-effects models, separately for each device.

Results

In addition to age and mean arterial pressure (MAP) that strongly affected both cfPWV and PWVao, other significant factors appeared to indicate a measurement approach. cfPWV as a more direct measure of arterial stiffness was additionally affected by hypertension status, outdoor temperature, interaction of MAP with outdoor temperature and the order of visit, with MAP within-subject variability contributing on average 0.27 m/s to difference in repeated measurements at 5^°C and 0.004 m/s at 25^°C. PWVao measurements derived at a single brachial site were more dependent on age than cfPWV and also depended on personal characteristics such as height and sex, and heart rate; with within-subject MAP variability adding on average 0.23 m/s to the difference in repeated measures. We also found that female sex significantly increased, and recording in afternoon vs. morning significantly decreased measurement difficulties of both devices.

Conclusion

We identified factors affecting PWV recordings and measurement-difficulties and propose how to improve PWV measuring protocols.

The effect of perinatal HIV and antiretroviral therapy on vascular structure and function in young people: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Perinatal HIV infection (PHIV) and prolonged use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) may increase the likelihood of developing subclinical vascular dysfunction at an early age. We conducted a systematic review to assess the effect of PHIV and ART on intima-media thickness (IMT), arterial stiffness and endothelial function in individuals aged 6-25 years.

METHODS

Medline, Embase and Web of Science were searched, and studies screened by two independent reviewers. We performed a meta-analysis on selected studies reporting on IMT.

RESULTS

A total of 680 studies were retrieved from the databases, with 21 studies deemed eligible for qualitative analysis. There were few studies assessing IMT, arterial stiffness and endothelial function. More than half of the studies found either increased IMT, stiffer arteries or impaired endothelial function in PHIV compared to uninfected controls. A minority of the studies reported that the two groups had similar vascular parameters, a conflicting finding. There was a lack of standardisation for IMT assessment and reporting in numerous studies. In a meta-analysis of seven studies with matching methodologies, IMT was higher in PHIV compared to uninfected controls, (mean difference, 0.05 (0.01-0.09; p = 0.01) but heterogeneity between the studies was substantial (I², 96.7%; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

PHIV may affect vascular structure and function. Existing studies are generally small, often contradictory, and predominantly cross-sectional in design. Further studies are required to understand vascular health in PHIV to identify cardiovascular disease risk and improve interventional strategies aimed at prevention and treatment of early vascular changes in this population.