New Insights Into the Interplay Among Autophagy, the NLRP3 Inflammasome and Inflammation in Adipose Tissue

All Roads Lead to Rome: Comparing Nanoparticle- and Small Molecule-Driven Cell Autophagy

Autophagy, vital for removing cellular waste, is triggered differently by small molecules and nanoparticles. Small molecules, like rapamycin, non-selectively activate autophagy by inhibiting the mTOR pathway, which is essential for cell regulation. This can clear damaged components but may cause cytotoxicity with prolonged use. Nanoparticles, however, induce autophagy, often causing oxidative stress, through broader cellular interactions and can lead to a targeted form known as "xenophagy." Their impact varies with their properties but can be harnessed therapeutically. In this review, the autophagy induced by nanoparticles is explored and small molecules across four dimensions: the mechanisms behind autophagy induction, the outcomes of such induction, the toxicological effects on cellular autophagy, and the therapeutic potential of employing autophagy triggered by nanoparticles or small molecules. Although small molecules and nanoparticles each induce autophagy through different pathways and lead to diverse effects, both represent invaluable tools in cell biology, nanomedicine, and drug discovery, offering unique insights and therapeutic opportunities.

NLRP3 inflammasome in atherosclerosis: Mechanisms and targeted therapies

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the primary pathology behind various cardiovascular diseases and the leading cause of death and disability globally. Recent evidence suggests that AS is a chronic vascular inflammatory disease caused by multiple factors. In this context, the NLRP3 inflammasome, acting as a signal transducer of the immune system, plays a critical role in the onset and progression of AS. The NLRP3 inflammasome is involved in endothelial injury, foam cell formation, and pyroptosis in AS. Therefore, targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome offers a new treatment strategy for AS. This review highlights the latest insights into AS pathogenesis and the pharmacological therapies targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome, focusing on optimal targets for small molecule inhibitors. These insights are valuable for rational drug design and the pharmacological assessment of new targeted NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitors in treating AS.

Cellular Senescence and Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Obesity-A Narrative Review

This narrative review explores the pathophysiology of obesity, cellular senescence, and exosome release. When exposed to excessive nutrients, adipocytes develop mitochondrial dysfunction and generate reactive oxygen species with DNA damage. This triggers adipocyte hypertrophy and hypoxia, inhibition of adiponectin secretion and adipogenesis, increased endoplasmic reticulum stress and maladaptive unfolded protein response, metaflammation, and polarization of macrophages. Such feed-forward cycles are not resolved by antioxidant systems, heat shock response pathways, or DNA repair mechanisms, resulting in transmissible cellular senescence via autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine signaling. Senescence can thus affect preadipocytes, mature adipocytes, tissue macrophages and lymphocytes, hepatocytes, vascular endothelium, pancreatic β cells, myocytes, hypothalamic nuclei, and renal podocytes. The senescence-associated secretory phenotype is closely related to visceral adipose tissue expansion and metaflammation; inhibition of SIRT-1, adiponectin, and autophagy; and increased release of exosomes, exosomal micro-RNAs, pro-inflammatory adipokines, and saturated free fatty acids. The resulting hypernefemia, insulin resistance, and diminished fatty acid β-oxidation lead to lipotoxicity and progressive obesity, metabolic syndrome, and physical and cognitive functional decline. Weight cycling is related to continuing immunosenescence and exposure to palmitate. Cellular senescence, exosome release, and the transmissible senescence-associated secretory phenotype contribute to obesity and metabolic syndrome. Targeted therapies have interrelated and synergistic effects on cellular senescence, obesity, and premature aging.

Autophagy and inflammation an intricate affair in the management of obesity and metabolic disorders: evidence for novel pharmacological strategies?

Unhealthy lifestyle habits including a sedentary life, the lack of physical activity, and wrong dietary habits are the major ones responsible for the constant increase of obesity and metabolic disorders prevalence worldwide; therefore, the scientific community pays significant attention to the pharmacotherapy of such diseases, beyond lifestyle interventions, the use of medical devices, and surgical approaches. The intricate interplay between autophagy and inflammation appears crucial to orchestrate fundamental aspects of cellular and organismal responses to challenging stimuli, including metabolic insults; hence, when these two processes are dysregulated (enhanced or suppressed) they produce pathologic effects. The present review summarizes the existing literature reporting the intricate affair between autophagy and inflammation in the context of metabolic disorders, including obesity, diabetes, and liver metabolic diseases (non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)). The evidence collected so far suggests that an alteration of autophagy might lead to maladaptive metabolic and inflammatory responses thus exacerbating the severity of the disease, and the most prominent conclusion underlies that autophagy might exert a protective function by contributing to balance inflammation. However, the complex nature of obesity and metabolic disorders might represent a limit of the studies; indeed, although many pharmacological treatments, producing positive metabolic effects, are also able to modulate autophagic flux and inflammation, it is not clear if the final beneficial effect might occur only by their mechanism of action, rather than because of additionally involved pathways. Finally, although future studies are needed, the observation that anti-obesity and antidiabetic drugs already on the market, including incretin mimetic agents, facilitate autophagy by dampening inflammation, strongly contributes to the idea that autophagy might represent a druggable system for the development of novel pharmacological tools that might represent an attractive strategy for the treatment of obesity and metabolic disorders.

Antidepressant pharmacological mechanisms: focusing on the regulation of autophagy

The core symptoms of depression are anhedonia and persistent hopelessness. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and their related medications are commonly used for clinical treatment, despite their significant adverse effects. Traditional Chinese medicine with its multiple targets, channels, and compounds, exhibit immense potential in treating depression. Autophagy, a vital process in depression pathology, has emerged as a promising target for intervention. This review summarized the pharmacological mechanisms of antidepressants by regulating autophagy. We presented insights from recent studies, discussed current research limitations, and proposed new strategies for basic research and their clinical application in depression.

Tanshinone I specifically suppresses NLRP3 inflammasome activation by disrupting the association of NLRP3 and ASC

BACKGROUND

Abnormal activation of NLRP3 inflammasome is related to a series of inflammatory diseases, including type 2 diabetes, gouty arthritis, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, targeting NLRP3 inflammasome is regarded as a potential therapeutic strategy for many inflammatory diseases. A growing number of studies have identified tanshinone I (Tan I) as a potential anti-inflammatory agent because of its good anti-inflammatory activity. However, its specific anti-inflammatory mechanism and direct target are unclear and need further study.

METHODS

IL-1β and caspase-1 were detected by immunoblotting and ELISA, and mtROS levels were measured by flow cytometry. Immunoprecipitation was used to explore the interaction between NLRP3, NEK7 and ASC. In a mouse model of LPS-induced septic shock, IL-1β levels in peritoneal lavage fluid and serum were measured by ELISA. Liver inflammation and fibrosis in the NASH model were analyzed by HE staining and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Tan I inhibited the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in macrophages, but had no effect on the activation of AIM2 or NLRC4 inflammasome. Mechanistically, Tan I inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome assembly and activation by targeting NLRP3-ASC interaction. Furthermore, Tan I exhibited protective effects in mouse models of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated diseases, including septic shock and NASH.

CONCLUSIONS

Tan I specifically suppresses NLRP3 inflammasome activation by disrupting the association of NLRP3 and ASC, and exhibits protective effects in mouse models of LPS-induced septic shock and NASH. These findings suggest that Tan I is a specific NLRP3 inhibitor and may be a promising candidate for treating NLRP3 inflammasome-related diseases.

[Role of metaflammation as a systemic manifestation of metabolic diseases]

Visceral obesity as a component of the metabolic syndrome is characterized by systemic and local inflammation, which can be quantified in organs (metaflammation). This process can be regarded as a chronic, sterile, and low-grade state of inflammation without infection, trauma, tumor or autoimmunity. It is caused by an inflammation of the visceral adipose tissue (adipose inflammation or adipoflammation) due to adipocyte hypertrophy and hyperplasia with increased infiltration by monocytes and macrophages. Important is the presence of proinflammatory, so-called polarized M1 macrophages that are induced by interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) with secretion of interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and IL‑1. In contrast, the anti-inflammatory, so-called polarized M2 macrophages induced by IL‑4 and IL-13 with secretion of IL‑8 and IL-10 decrease. In addition, the secreted adipokine pattern changes from anti-inflammatory to proinflammatory. Adipocyte necrosis, local hypoxia, dysregulated autophagy, activation of inflammasomes, modulation of toll-like receptors, and epigenetic factors play a complex role. This mechanism results in local insulin resistance and subsequently a systemic insulin resistance of peripheral organs as well as a spillover of local mediators of inflammation into the systemic circulation (measured as obesity C‑reactive protein, CRP). The activation of inflammatory signal transduction cascades leads to inhibitory phosphorylation of the insulin signaling pathway and a weakening of the effect of insulin. In parallel, ectopic lipid accumulation occurs in the liver, musculature, pancreas, pericardium and lungs. Diacylglycerol (DAG) activates specific isoforms of protein kinase C (ε in the liver and τ in the musculature), which in turn lead to inhibition of the insulin signaling pathway. Insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus is an inflammatory disease. The aim of future translational approaches is an anti-inflammatory, molecularly individualized (precision medicine) treatment in adipose tissue (targeted therapy) and in organs of insulin resistance.

NLRP3 Inflammasome in Atherosclerosis: Putting Out the Fire of Inflammation

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease with thickening or hardening of the arteries, which led to the built-up of plaques in the inner lining of an artery. Among all the clarified pathogenesis, the over-activation of inflammatory reaction is one of the most acknowledged one. The nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat (NLR) and pyrin domain containing receptor 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, as a vital and special form of inflammation and innate immunity, has been widely revealed to participate in the onset and development of AS. This review will introduce the process of the pathogenesis and progression of AS, and will describe the biological features of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Furthermore, the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in AS and the possible mechanisms will be discussed. In addition, several kinds of agents with the effect of anti-atherosclerotic taking advantage of the NLRP3 inflammasome intervention will be described and discussed in detail, including natural compounds (baicalin, dihydromyricetin, luteolin, 5-deoxy-rutaecarpine (R3) and Salvianolic acid A, etc.), microRNAs (microRNA-30c-5p, microRNA-9, microRNA-146a-5p, microRNA-16-5p and microRNA-181a, etc.), and autophagy regulators (melatonin, dietary PUFA and arglabin, etc.). We aim to provide novel insights in the exploration of the specific mechanisms of AS and the development of new treatments of AS.

A New Concept of Associations between Gut Microbiota, Immunity and Central Nervous System for the Innovative Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders

Nerve cell death accounts for various neurodegenerative disorders, in which altered immunity to the integrated central nervous system (CNS) might have destructive consequences. This undesirable immune response often affects the progressive neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and/or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It has been shown that commensal gut microbiota could influence the brain and/or several machineries of immune function. In other words, neurodegenerative disorders may be connected to the gut-brain-immune correlational system. The engrams in the brain could retain the information of a certain inflammation in the body which might be involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Tactics involving the use of probiotics and/or fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) are now evolving as the most promising and/or valuable for the modification of the gut-brain-immune axis. More deliberation of this concept and the roles of gut microbiota would lead to the development of stupendous treatments for the prevention of, and/or therapeutics for, various intractable diseases including several neurodegenerative disorders.

Interaction between autophagy and the NLRP3 inflammasome in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease

Autophagy degrades phagocytosed damaged organelles, misfolded proteins, and various pathogens through lysosomes as an essential way to maintain cellular homeostasis. Autophagy is a tightly regulated cellular self-degradation process that plays a crucial role in maintaining normal cellular function and homeostasis in the body. The NLRP3 inflammasome in neuroinflammation is a vital recognition receptor in innate cellular immunity, sensing external invading pathogens and endogenous stimuli and further triggering inflammatory responses. The NLRP3 inflammasome forms an inflammatory complex by recognizing DAMPS or PAMPS, and its activation triggers caspase-1-mediated cleavage of pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 to promote the inflammatory response. In recent years, it has been reported that there is a complex interaction between autophagy and neuroinflammation. Strengthening autophagy can regulate the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome to reduce neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disease and protect neurons. However, the related mechanism is not entirely clear. The formation of protein aggregates is one of the standard features of Neurodegenerative diseases. A large number of toxic protein aggregates can induce inflammation. In theory, activation of the autophagy pathway can remove the potential toxicity of protein aggregates and delay the progression of the disease. This article aims to review recent research on the interaction of autophagy, NLRP3 inflammasome, and protein aggregates in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD), analyze the mechanism and provide theoretical references for further research in the future.

Gasdermin D Deficiency Does Not Protect Mice from High-Fat Diet-Induced Glucose Intolerance and Adipose Tissue Inflammation

The adipose tissue NLRP3 inflammasome has recently emerged as a contributor to obesity-related metabolic inflammation. Recent studies have demonstrated that the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome cleaves gasdermin D (GSDMD) and induces pyroptosis, a proinflammatory programmed cell death. However, whether GSDMD is involved in the regulation of adipose tissue function and the development of obesity-induced metabolic disease remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of GSDMD in adipose tissue inflammation as well as whole-body metabolism using GSDMD-deficient mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 30 weeks. The effects of GSDMD deficiency on adipose tissue, liver, and isolated macrophages from wild-type (WT) and GSDMD knockout (KO) mice were examined. In addition, 3T3-L1 cells were used to examine the expression of GSDMD during adipogenesis. The results demonstrate that although HFD-induced inflammation was partly ameliorated in isolated macrophages and liver, adipose tissue remained unaffected by GSDMD deficiency. Compared with the WT HFD mice, GSDMD KO HFD mice exhibited a mild increase in HFD-induced glucose intolerance with increased systemic and adipose tissue IL-1β levels. Interestingly, GSDMD deficiency caused accumulation of fat mass when challenged with HFD, partly by suppressing the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ). The expression of GSDMD mRNA and protein was dramatically suppressed during adipocyte differentiation and was inversely correlated with PPARγ expression. Together, these findings indicate that GSDMD is not a prerequisite for HFD-induced adipose tissue inflammation and suggest a noncanonical function of GSDMD in regulation of fat mass through PPARγ.