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Jenkins MC, O’Brien CN, Parker CC, Tucker MS. A Study of Cross-Protection between Eimeria maxima Immunovariants. Pathogens 2024; 13:66. [PMID: 38251373 PMCID: PMC10819139 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13010066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
For reasons unknown, Eimeria maxima is unique among Eimeria species infecting chickens in the immunovariability it displays among isolates from different geographical areas. Eimeria maxima oocysts (named EmaxAPU3) were isolated late in grow-out (6 weeks) from litter in a commercial broiler operation that was using Eimeria vaccination as the coccidiosis control program. Cross-protection studies (n = 4) were conducted in immunologically naïve chickens between EmaxAPU3 and two E. maxima lab strains (EmaxAPU1, EmaxAPU2) by immunizing with one E. maxima strain and challenging with either the homologous or heterologous E. maxima. As measured by oocyst output, immunization with EmaxAPU1 protected against homologous challenge (EmaxAPU1) and against heterologous challenge with EmaxAPU3, but not against EmaxAPU2. Similarly, immunization with EmaxAPU3 protected against homologous challenge (EmaxAPU3) and against heterologous challenge with EmaxAPU1, but not against EmaxAPU2. Immunization of chickens with EmaxAPU2 elicited a protective response against homologous challenge (EmaxAPU2), but not against EmaxAPU1 nor EmaxAPU3. The most plausible explanation for the appearance of this immunovariant late in grow-out is that E. maxima APU3 escaped immunity directed to E. maxima antigenic types in the commercial vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark C. Jenkins
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Beltsville, MD 20705, USA; (C.N.O.); (C.C.P.); (M.S.T.)
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2
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Sontakke T, Biradar A, Nalage D. The role of genetics in determining resistance to coccidiosis in goats a review of current research and future directions. Mol Biol Rep 2023:10.1007/s11033-023-08520-3. [PMID: 37231218 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08520-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Coccidiosis is a significant parasitic disease in goats, with significant impacts on animal health, productivity, and economic losses for producers. Although various management practices can help control and prevent coccidiosis, a growing body of research suggests that genetics play an important role in determining resistance to the disease. This review explores the current understanding of the genetics of coccidiosis resistance in goats, including the potential genetic factors and mechanisms involved, and the implications for breeding and selection programs. The review will also discuss current research and future directions in this field, including the use of genomic tools and technologies to better understand the genetics of resistance and to improve breeding programs for coccidiosis resistance in goats. This review will be of interest to veterinary practitioners, goat producers, animal breeders, and researchers working in the field of veterinary parasitology and animal genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejswini Sontakke
- Department of Zoology, MGV's, Mahilaratna Pushpatai Hiray Arts, Science and Commerce Mahila Mahavidyalaya Malegaon Camp, Malegaon, 423105, Dist. Nashik (MH), India
| | - Ashwini Biradar
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. B. A. M. University, Sub Campus Osmanabad, Osmanabad, 413501, India
| | - Dinesh Nalage
- Molecular Biology, R & D Department, SRL Limited, Plot No 1, Prime Square building, S.V. Road, Goregaon West, Mumbai, 400062, MH, India.
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3
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Chen X, Wang Z, Chen Y, Akinci I, Luo W, Xu Y, Jebessa E, Blake D, Sparks N, Hanotte O, Nie Q. Transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed circRNAs miRNAs and mRNAs during the challenge of coccidiosis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:910860. [PMID: 36458003 PMCID: PMC9706185 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.910860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian coccidiosis is a common enzootic disease caused by infection of Eimeria species parasites. It causes huge economic losses in the global poultry industry. Current control using anticoccidial drugs or vaccination is limited due to drug resistance and the relatively high cost of vaccines. Improving host genetic resistance to Eimeria species is considered an effective strategy for improved control of coccidiosis. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been found to function as biomarkers or diagnoses of various kinds of diseases. The molecular biological functions of circRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs related to Sasso chicken have not yet been described during Eimeria species challenge. In this study, RNA-seq was used to profile the expression pattern of circRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs in spleens from Eimeria tenella-infected and non-infected commercial dual-purpose Sasso T445 breed chickens. Results showed a total of 40 differentially expressed circRNAs (DEcircRNAs), 31 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs), and 820 differentially expressed genes (DEmRNAs) between infected and non-infected chickens. Regulatory networks were constructed between differentially expressed circRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs to offer insights into the interaction mechanisms between chickens and Eimeria spp. Functional validation of a significantly differentially expressed circRNA, circMGAT5, revealed that circMGAT5 could sponge miR-132c-5p to promote the expression of the miR-132c-5p target gene monocyte to macrophage differentiation-associated (MMD) during the infection of E. tenella sporozoites or LPS stimulation. Pathologically, knockdown of circMGAT5 significantly upregulated the expression of macrophage surface markers and the macrophage activation marker, F4/80 and MHC-II, which indicated that circMGAT5 might inhibit the activation of macrophage. miR-132c-5p markedly facilitated the expression of F4/80 and MHC-II while circMGAT5 could attenuate the increase of F4/80 and MHC-II induced by miR-132c-5p, indicating that circMGAT5 exhibited function through the circMGAT5-miR-132c-5p-MMD axis. Together, our results indicate that circRNAs exhibit their resistance or susceptive roles during E. tenella infection. Among these, circMGAT5 may inhibit the activation of macrophages through the circMGAT5-miR-132c-5p-MMD axis to participate in the immune response induced by Eimeria infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolan Chen
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture & State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- School of Life Sciences, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhijun Wang
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture & State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yangfeng Chen
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture & State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Ibrahim Akinci
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Poultry Research Institute, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Wei Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Livestock and Poultry Breeding & Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Institute of Animal Science, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yibin Xu
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture & State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Endashaw Jebessa
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture & State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- LiveGene – CTLGH, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Damer Blake
- Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, United Kingdom
| | - Nick Sparks
- Roslin Institute Building, Scotland’s Rural College, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Olivier Hanotte
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
- LiveGene – CTLGH, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Qinghua Nie
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture & State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Lab of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, and Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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4
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Characterization of vaccine-induced immune responses against coccidiosis in broiler chickens. Vaccine 2022; 40:3893-3902. [PMID: 35623907 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Coccidiosis, caused by Eimeria protozoan species, is an economically important enteric disease of poultry. Although commercial live vaccines are widely used for disease control, the vaccine-induced protective immune mechanisms are poorly characterized. The present study used a commercial broiler vaccine containing a mixture of E. acervulina, E. maxima, and E. tenella. One-day-old chicks were vaccinated by spray followed by a challenge at 21 days of age with a mixture of wild type Eimeria species via oral gavage. Oocyst shedding, immune gene expression and cellular responses in the spleen and cecal tonsils were measured at pre- (days 14 and 21) and post-challenge (days 24, 28 and 35) time points. Results showed that the oocyst counts were significantly reduced in the vaccinated chickens at post-challenge compared to unvaccinated control group. While the vaccinated birds had a significantly increased toll-like receptor (TLR) 21 gene expression at pre-challenge, the transcription of interferon (IFN)γ, Interleukin (IL)-12 and CD40 genes in spleen and cecal tonsils of these birds was significantly higher at post-challenge compared to unvaccinated chickens. Cellular immunophenotyping analysis found that vaccination led to increased frequency of macrophages and activated T cells (CD8+CD44+ and CD4+CD44+) in the spleen and cecal tonsils at post-challenge. Furthermore, in vitro stimulation of chicken macrophages (MQ-NCSU cells) with purified individual species of E. acervulina, E. maxima, and E. tenella showed a significantly increased expression of TLR21, TLR2 and IFNγ genes as well as nitric oxide production. Collectively, these findings suggest that TLR21 and TLR2 may be involved in the immune cell recognition of Eimeria parasites and that the vaccine can induce a robust macrophage activation leading to a T helper-1 dominated protective response at both local and systemic lymphoid tissues.
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5
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Sánchez-Arcila JC, Jensen KDC. Forward Genetics in Apicomplexa Biology: The Host Side of the Story. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:878475. [PMID: 35646724 PMCID: PMC9133346 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.878475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Forward genetic approaches have been widely used in parasitology and have proven their power to reveal the complexities of host-parasite interactions in an unbiased fashion. Many aspects of the parasite's biology, including the identification of virulence factors, replication determinants, antibiotic resistance genes, and other factors required for parasitic life, have been discovered using such strategies. Forward genetic approaches have also been employed to understand host resistance mechanisms to parasitic infection. Here, we will introduce and review all forward genetic approaches that have been used to identify host factors involved with Apicomplexa infections, which include classical genetic screens and QTL mapping, GWAS, ENU mutagenesis, overexpression, RNAi and CRISPR-Cas9 library screens. Collectively, these screens have improved our understanding of host resistance mechanisms, immune regulation, vaccine and drug designs for Apicomplexa parasites. We will also discuss how recent advances in molecular genetics give present opportunities to further explore host-parasite relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan C. Sánchez-Arcila
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California Merced, Merced, CA, United States
| | - Kirk D. C. Jensen
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California Merced, Merced, CA, United States
- Health Science Research Institute, University of California, Merced, Merced, CA, United States
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6
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Budischak SA, Halvorsen S, Finseth F. Genomic heterozygosity is associated with parasite abundance, but the effects are not mediated by host condition. Evol Ecol 2022; 37:75-96. [PMID: 36568713 PMCID: PMC9666582 DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10175-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Whether, when, and how genetic diversity buffers individuals and populations against infectious disease risk is a critical and open question for understanding wildlife disease and zoonotic disease risk. Several, but not all, studies have found negative relationships between infection and heterozygosity in wildlife. Since they can host multiple zoonotic infections, we sampled a population of wild deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus), sequenced their genomes, and examined their fecal samples for coccidia and nematode eggs. We analyzed coccidia infection status, abundance, and coinfection status in relation to per-locus and per-individual measures of heterozygosity, as well as identified SNPs associated with infection status. Since heterozygosity might affect host condition, and condition is known to affect immunity, it was included as a co-variate in the per-individual analyses and as response variable in relation to heterozygosity. Not only did coccidia-infected individuals have lower levels of genome-wide per-locus diversity across all metrics, but we found an inverse relationship between genomic diversity and severity of coccidia infection. We also found weaker evidence that coinfected individuals had lower levels of private allelic variation than all other groups. In the per-individual analyses, relationships between heterozygosity and infection were marginal but followed the same negative trends. Condition was negatively correlated with infection, but was not associated with heterozygosity, suggesting that effects of heterozygosity on infection were not mediated by host condition in this system. Association tests identified multiple loci involved in the inflammatory response, with a particular role for NF-κB signaling, supporting previous work on the genetic basis of coccidia resistance. Taken together, we find that increased genome-wide neutral diversity, the presence of specific genetic variants, and improved condition positively impact infection status. Our results underscore the importance of considering host genomic variation as a buffer against infection, especially in systems that can harbor zoonotic diseases. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10682-022-10175-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A. Budischak
- W.M. Keck Science Department, Claremont McKenna, Pitzer, and Scripps Colleges, Claremont, USA
| | | | - Findley Finseth
- W.M. Keck Science Department, Claremont McKenna, Pitzer, and Scripps Colleges, Claremont, USA
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7
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Soutter F, Werling D, Nolan M, Küster T, Attree E, Marugán-Hernández V, Kim S, Tomley FM, Blake DP. A Novel Whole Yeast-Based Subunit Oral Vaccine Against Eimeria tenella in Chickens. Front Immunol 2022; 13:809711. [PMID: 35185896 PMCID: PMC8848252 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.809711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cheap, easy-to-produce oral vaccines are needed for control of coccidiosis in chickens to reduce the impact of this disease on welfare and economic performance. Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast expressing three Eimeria tenella antigens were developed and delivered as heat-killed, freeze-dried whole yeast oral vaccines to chickens in four separate studies. After vaccination, E. tenella replication was reduced following low dose challenge (250 oocysts) in Hy-Line Brown layer chickens (p<0.01). Similarly, caecal lesion score was reduced in Hy-Line Brown layer chickens vaccinated using a mixture of S. cerevisiae expressing EtAMA1, EtIMP1 and EtMIC3 following pathogenic-level challenge (4,000 E. tenella oocysts; p<0.01). Mean body weight gain post-challenge with 15,000 E. tenella oocysts was significantly increased in vaccinated Cobb500 broiler chickens compared to mock-vaccinated controls (p<0.01). Thus, inactivated recombinant yeast vaccines offer cost-effective and scalable opportunities for control of coccidiosis, with relevance to broiler production and chickens reared in low-and middle-income countries (LMICs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Soutter
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Dirk Werling
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Nolan
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Tatiana Küster
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth Attree
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sungwon Kim
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona M Tomley
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Damer P Blake
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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8
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Attree E, Sanchez-Arsuaga G, Jones M, Xia D, Marugan-Hernandez V, Blake D, Tomley F. Controlling the causative agents of coccidiosis in domestic chickens; an eye on the past and considerations for the future. CABI AGRICULTURE AND BIOSCIENCE 2021; 2:37. [PMID: 34604790 PMCID: PMC8475900 DOI: 10.1186/s43170-021-00056-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Coccidiosis is a potentially severe enteritis caused by species of obligate intracellular parasites of the genus Eimeria. These parasites cause significant economic losses to the poultry industry, predominantly due to compromised efficiency of production as well as the cost of control. These losses were recently estimated to cost chicken producers approximately £10.4 billion worldwide annually. High levels of Eimeria infection cause clinical coccidiosis which is a significant threat to poultry welfare, and a pre-disposing contributory factor for necrotic enteritis. Control of Eimeria parasites and coccidiosis is therefore an important endeavour; multiple approaches have been developed and these are often deployed together. This review summarises current trends in strategies for control of Eimeria, focusing on three main areas: good husbandry, chemoprophylaxis and vaccination. There is currently no "perfect solution" and there are advantages and limitations to all existing methods. Therefore, the aim of this review is to present current control strategies and suggest how these may develop in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Attree
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Gonzalo Sanchez-Arsuaga
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Jones
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Dong Xia
- Department of Clinical Science and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Virginia Marugan-Hernandez
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Damer Blake
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Tomley
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, North Mymms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
- UKRI GCRF One Health Poultry Hub, Ahmedabad, India
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9
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Das Q, Shay J, Gauthier M, Yin X, Hasted TL, Ross K, Julien C, Yacini H, Kennes YM, Warriner K, Marcone MF, Diarra MS. Effects of Vaccination Against Coccidiosis on Gut Microbiota and Immunity in Broiler Fed Bacitracin and Berry Pomace. Front Immunol 2021; 12:621803. [PMID: 34149685 PMCID: PMC8213364 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.621803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Feeding practices have been found to influence gut microbiota which play a major role in immunity of poultry. In the present study, changes in cecal microbiota and humoral responses resulting in the 55 ppm bacitracin (BACI), 1% each of cranberry (CP1) and wild blueberry (BP1) pomace alone or in combination (CP+BP) feeding in broiler Cobb 500 vaccinated or not against coccidiosis were investigated. In the non-vaccinated group, no significant treatment effects were observed on performance parameters. Vaccination significantly affected bird's performance parameters particularly during the growing phase from 10 to 20 days of age. In general, the prevalence of coccidiosis and necrotic enteritis (NE) was reduced by vaccination (P < 0.05). BACI-treated birds showed low intestinal lesion scores, and both CP1 and BP1 feed supplementations reduced Eimeria acervulina and Clostridium perfringens incidences similar to BACI. Vaccination induced change in serum enzymes, minerals, and lipid levels in 21-day old birds while, levels of triglyceride (TRIG) and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) were higher (P < 0.05) in CP1 treated non-vaccinated group than in the control. The levels of NEFA were lower in BACI- and CP1-fed birds than in the control in non-vaccinated day 28 old birds. The highest levels of all estimated three immunoglobulins (IgY, IgM, and IgA) were found in the vaccinated birds. Metagenomics analysis of the cecal bacterial community in 21-day old birds showed the presence of Firmicutes (90%), Proteobacteria (5%), Actinobacteria (2%), and Bacteroidetes (2%). In the vaccinated group, an effect of BACI was noted on Proteobacteria (P = 0.03). Vaccination and/or dietary treatments influenced the population of Lactobacillaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Clostridiaceae, and Streptococcaceae which were among the most abundant families. Overall, this study revealed that besides their beneficial effects on performance, alike bacitracin, berry pomaces in poultry feed have profound impacts on the chicken cecal microbiota and blood metabolites that could be influenced by vaccination against coccidiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quail Das
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Julie Shay
- Ottawa Laboratory (Carling) - Research and Development, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Martin Gauthier
- Biological Informatics Centre of Excellence, AAFC, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Xianhua Yin
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Teri-Lyn Hasted
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.,Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Kelly Ross
- Summerland Research and Development Centre, AAFC, Summerland, BC, Canada
| | - Carl Julien
- Centre de recherche en sciences animales de Deschambault, Deschambault, QC, Canada
| | - Hassina Yacini
- Centre de recherche en sciences animales de Deschambault, Deschambault, QC, Canada
| | - Yan Martel Kennes
- Centre de recherche en sciences animales de Deschambault, Deschambault, QC, Canada
| | - Keith Warriner
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Massimo F Marcone
- Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Moussa S Diarra
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Guelph, ON, Canada
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10
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Bremner A, Kim S, Morris KM, Nolan MJ, Borowska D, Wu Z, Tomley F, Blake DP, Hawken R, Kaiser P, Vervelde L. Kinetics of the Cellular and Transcriptomic Response to Eimeria maxima in Relatively Resistant and Susceptible Chicken Lines. Front Immunol 2021; 12:653085. [PMID: 33841436 PMCID: PMC8027475 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.653085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eimeria maxima is a common cause of coccidiosis in chickens, a disease that has a huge economic impact on poultry production. Knowledge of immunity to E. maxima and the specific mechanisms that contribute to differing levels of resistance observed between chicken breeds and between congenic lines derived from a single breed of chickens is required. This study aimed to define differences in the kinetics of the immune response of two inbred lines of White Leghorn chickens that exhibit differential resistance (line C.B12) or susceptibility (line 15I) to infection by E. maxima. Line C.B12 and 15I chickens were infected with E. maxima and transcriptome analysis of jejunal tissue was performed at 2, 4, 6 and 8 days post-infection (dpi). RNA-Seq analysis revealed differences in the rapidity and magnitude of cytokine transcription responses post-infection between the two lines. In particular, IFN-γ and IL-10 transcript expression increased in the jejunum earlier in line C.B12 (at 4 dpi) compared to line 15I (at 6 dpi). Line C.B12 chickens exhibited increases of IFNG and IL10 mRNA in the jejunum at 4 dpi, whereas in line 15I transcription was delayed but increased to a greater extent. RT-qPCR and ELISAs confirmed the results of the transcriptomic study. Higher serum IL-10 correlated strongly with higher E. maxima replication in line 15I compared to line C.B12 chickens. Overall, the findings suggest early induction of the IFN-γ and IL-10 responses, as well as immune-related genes including IL21 at 4 dpi identified by RNA-Seq, may be key to resistance to E. maxima.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abi Bremner
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Sungwon Kim
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom.,Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Katrina M Morris
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew John Nolan
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Dominika Borowska
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Zhiguang Wu
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Tomley
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Damer P Blake
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel Hawken
- Cobb-Vantress Inc., Siloam Springs, AR, United States
| | - Pete Kaiser
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom
| | - Lonneke Vervelde
- Division of Infection and Immunity, The Roslin Institute and R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Roslin, United Kingdom
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Soutter F, Werling D, Kim S, Pastor-Fernández I, Marugán-Hernández V, Tomley FM, Blake DP. Impact of Eimeria tenella Oocyst Dose on Parasite Replication, Lesion Score and Cytokine Transcription in the Caeca in Three Breeds of Commercial Layer Chickens. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:640041. [PMID: 33693044 PMCID: PMC7937735 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.640041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eimeria species parasites infect the gastrointestinal tract of chickens, causing disease and impacting on production. The poultry industry relies on anticoccidial drugs and live vaccines to control Eimeria and there is a need for novel, scalable alternatives. Understanding the outcomes of experimental infection in commercial chickens is valuable for assessment of novel interventions. We examined the impact of different infectious doses of Eimeria tenella (one low dose, three high doses) in three commercial layer chicken lines, evaluating lesion score, parasite replication and cytokine response in the caeca. Groups of eight to ten chickens were housed together and infected with 250, 4,000, 8,000 or 12,000 sporulated oocysts at 21 days of age. Five days post-infection caeca were assessed for lesions and to quantify parasite replication by qPCR and cytokine transcription by RT-qPCR. Comparison of the three high doses revealed no significant variation between them in observed lesions or parasite replication with all being significantly higher than the low dose infection. Transcription of IFN-γ and IL-10 increased in all infected chickens relative to unchallenged controls, with no significant differences associated with dose magnitude (p > 0.05). No significant differences were detected in lesion score, parasite replication or caecal cytokine expression between the three lines of chickens. We therefore propose 4,000 E. tenella oocysts is a sufficient dose to reliably induce lesions in commercial layer chickens, and that estimates of parasite replication can be derived by qPCR from these same birds. However, more accurate quantification of Eimeria replication requires a separate low dose challenge group. Optimisation of challenge dose in an appropriate chicken line is essential to maximize the value of in vivo efficacy studies. For coccidiosis, this approach can reduce the numbers of chickens required for statistically significant studies and reduce experimental severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Soutter
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dirk Werling
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sungwon Kim
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Iván Pastor-Fernández
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom.,SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Fiona M Tomley
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Damer P Blake
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
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12
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Broom LJ. Evidence-based consideration of dietary ‘alternatives’ to anticoccidial drugs to help control poultry coccidial infections. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00439339.2021.1873713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leon J. Broom
- Gut Health Consultancy, Exeter, UK
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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13
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Mtshali SA, Adeleke MA. A review of adaptive immune responses to Eimeria tenella and Eimeria maxima challenge in chickens. WORLD POULTRY SCI J 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/00439339.2020.1833693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. A. Mtshali
- Discipline of Genetics, School of Life Sciences, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - M. A. Adeleke
- Discipline of Genetics, School of Life Sciences, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Durban, South Africa
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14
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Yaman Y, Aymaz R, Keleş M, Bay V, Özüiçli M, Şenlik B. Association between ovine Toll-like receptor 4 ( TLR4) gene coding variants and presence of Eimeria spp. in naturally infected adult Turkish native sheep. Anim Biotechnol 2020; 32:375-380. [PMID: 32967565 DOI: 10.1080/10495398.2020.1824921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Coccidiosis caused by Eimeria spp. is a protozoan disease prevalent in farm animals, and it is responsible for serious economic losses especially in young animals. It has been popular to breed disease-resistant animals due to the concern about food safety, animal welfare, and public health. Toll-like receptor (TLR) gene family plays a key role in the innate immune system participating in host-antigen interaction, therefore, they are candidate genes for breeding disease-resistant animals. In the present study, possible genetic associations between TLR4 gene coding variants and the presence of Eimeria spp. in adult Turkish sheep were investigated. For this purpose, the presence of Eimeria spp. in fecal samples from six native Turkish sheep were determined, and approximately 1450 bp region in the 3rd exon of the ovine TLR4 gene was sequenced. Ten nonsynonymous and four synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were detected in the targeted region. Statistical analyses revealed that the SNP at the codon at 356th position encoding Leucine instead of Phenylalanine (F356L) was significantly associated with the presence of Eimeria spp. It was found that the individuals carrying at least one Leucine amino acid sequence at this position have 2.3-fold more risk for the presence of Eimeria spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalçın Yaman
- Department of Biometry and Genetics, Sheep Breeding and Research Institute, Bandirma, Turkey
| | - Ramazan Aymaz
- Department of Biometry and Genetics, Sheep Breeding and Research Institute, Bandirma, Turkey
| | - Murat Keleş
- Department of Biometry and Genetics, Sheep Breeding and Research Institute, Bandirma, Turkey
| | - Veysel Bay
- Department of Biometry and Genetics, Sheep Breeding and Research Institute, Bandirma, Turkey
| | - Mehmet Özüiçli
- Veterinary Faculty, Department of Parasitology, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
| | - Bayram Şenlik
- Veterinary Faculty, Department of Parasitology, Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
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15
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Pastor-Fernández I, Kim S, Marugán-Hernández V, Soutter F, Tomley FM, Blake DP. Vaccination with transgenic Eimeria tenella expressing Eimeria maxima AMA1 and IMP1 confers partial protection against high-level E. maxima challenge in a broiler model of coccidiosis. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:343. [PMID: 32650837 PMCID: PMC7350274 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04210-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Poultry coccidiosis is a parasitic enteric disease with a highly negative impact on chicken production. In-feed chemoprophylaxis remains the primary method of control, but the increasing ineffectiveness of anticoccidial drugs, and potential future restrictions on their use has encouraged the use of commercial live vaccines. Availability of such formulations is constrained by their production, which relies on the use of live chickens. Several experimental approaches have been taken to explore ways to reduce the complexity and cost of current anticoccidial vaccines including the use of live vectors expressing relevant Eimeria proteins. We and others have shown that vaccination with transgenic Eimeria tenella parasites expressing Eimeria maxima Apical Membrane Antigen-1 or Immune Mapped Protein-1 (EmAMA1 and EmIMP1) partially reduces parasite replication after challenge with a low dose of E. maxima oocysts. In the present study, we have reassessed the efficacy of these experimental vaccines using commercial birds reared at high stocking densities and challenged with both low and high doses of E. maxima to evaluate how well they protect chickens against the negative impacts of disease on production parameters. Methods Populations of E. tenella parasites expressing EmAMA1 and EmIMP1 were obtained by nucleofection and propagated in chickens. Cobb500 broilers were immunised with increasing doses of transgenic oocysts and challenged two weeks later with E. maxima to quantify the effect of vaccination on parasite replication, local IFN-γ and IL-10 responses (300 oocysts), as well as impacts on intestinal lesions and body weight gain (10,000 oocysts). Results Vaccination of chickens with E. tenella expressing EmAMA1, or admixtures of E. tenella expressing EmAMA1 or EmIMP1, was safe and induced partial protection against challenge as measured by E. maxima replication and severity of pathology. Higher levels of protection were observed when both antigens were delivered and was associated with a partial modification of local immune responses against E. maxima, which we hypothesise resulted in more rapid immune recognition of the challenge parasites. Conclusions This study offers prospects for future development of multivalent anticoccidial vaccines for commercial chickens. Efforts should now be focused on the discovery of additional antigens for incorporation into such vaccines.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Iván Pastor-Fernández
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertforshire, AL9 7TA, UK. .,SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Sungwon Kim
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertforshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Virginia Marugán-Hernández
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertforshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Francesca Soutter
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertforshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Fiona M Tomley
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertforshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Damer P Blake
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertforshire, AL9 7TA, UK
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16
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Lundregan SL, Niskanen AK, Muff S, Holand H, Kvalnes T, Ringsby T, Husby A, Jensen H. Resistance to gapeworm parasite has both additive and dominant genetic components in house sparrows, with evolutionary consequences for ability to respond to parasite challenge. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:3812-3829. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.15491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L. Lundregan
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
| | - Alina K. Niskanen
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
- Ecology and Genetics Research Unit University of Oulu Oulu Finland
| | - Stefanie Muff
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Mathematical Sciences Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
| | - Håkon Holand
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
| | - Thomas Kvalnes
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
| | - Thor‐Harald Ringsby
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
| | - Arild Husby
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
- Evolutionary Biology Department of Ecology and Genetics Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
| | - Henrik Jensen
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology Norwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
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17
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Soutter F, Werling D, Tomley FM, Blake DP. Poultry Coccidiosis: Design and Interpretation of Vaccine Studies. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:101. [PMID: 32175341 PMCID: PMC7054285 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Eimeria infection impacts upon chicken welfare and economic productivity of the poultry sector. Live coccidiosis vaccines for chickens have been available for almost 70 years, but the requirement to formulate blends of oocysts from multiple Eimeria species makes vaccine production costly and logistically demanding. A multivalent vaccine that does not require chickens for its production and can induce protection against multiple Eimeria species is highly desirable. However, despite the identification and testing of many vaccine candidate antigens, no recombinant coccidiosis vaccine has been developed commercially. Currently, assessment of vaccine efficacy against Eimeria, and the disease coccidiosis, can be done only through in vivo vaccination and challenge experiments but the design of such studies has been highly variable. Lack of a "standard" protocol for assessing vaccine efficacy makes comparative evaluations very difficult, complicating vaccine development, and validation. The formulation and schedule of vaccination, the breed of chicken and choice of husbandry system, the species, strain, magnitude, and timing of delivery of the parasite challenge, and the parameters used to assess vaccine efficacy all influence the outcomes of experimental trials. In natural Eimeria infections, the induction of strong cell mediated immune responses are central to the development of protective immunity against coccidiosis. Antibodies are generally regarded to be of lesser importance. Unfortunately, there are no specific immunological assays that can accurately predict how well a vaccine will protect against coccidiosis (i.e., no "correlates of protection"). Thus, experimental vaccine studies rely on assessing a variety of post-challenge parameters, including assessment of pathognomonic lesions, measurements of parasite replication such as oocyst output or quantification of Eimeria genomes, and/or measurements of productivity such as body weight gain and feed conversion rates. Understanding immune responses to primary and secondary infection can inform on the most appropriate immunological assays. The discovery of new antigens for different Eimeria species and the development of new methods of vaccine antigen delivery necessitates a more considered approach to assessment of novel vaccines with robust, repeatable study design. Careful consideration of performance and welfare factors that are genuinely relevant to chicken producers and vaccine manufacturers is essential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Damer P. Blake
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
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18
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Freem L, Summers KM, Gheyas AA, Psifidi A, Boulton K, MacCallum A, Harne R, O’Dell J, Bush SJ, Hume DA. Analysis of the Progeny of Sibling Matings Reveals Regulatory Variation Impacting the Transcriptome of Immune Cells in Commercial Chickens. Front Genet 2019; 10:1032. [PMID: 31803225 PMCID: PMC6870463 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2019.01032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
There is increasing recognition that the underlying genetic variation contributing to complex traits influences transcriptional regulation and can be detected at a population level as expression quantitative trait loci. At the level of an individual, allelic variation in transcriptional regulation of individual genes can be detected by measuring allele-specific expression in RNAseq data. We reasoned that extreme variants in gene expression could be identified by analysis of inbred progeny with shared grandparents. Commercial chickens have been intensively selected for production traits. Selection is associated with large blocks of linkage disequilibrium with considerable potential for co-selection of closely linked "hitch-hiker alleles" affecting traits unrelated to the feature being selected, such as immune function, with potential impact on the productivity and welfare of the animals. To test this hypothesis that there is extreme allelic variation in immune-associated genes we sequenced a founder population of commercial broiler and layer birds. These birds clearly segregated genetically based upon breed type. Each genome contained numerous candidate null mutations, protein-coding variants predicted to be deleterious and extensive non-coding polymorphism. We mated selected broiler-layer pairs then generated cohorts of F2 birds by sibling mating of the F1 generation. Despite the predicted prevalence of deleterious coding variation in the genomic sequence of the founders, clear detrimental impacts of inbreeding on survival and post-hatch development were detected in only one F2 sibship of 15. There was no effect on circulating leukocyte populations in hatchlings. In selected F2 sibships we performed RNAseq analysis of the spleen and isolated bone marrow-derived macrophages (with and without lipopolysaccharide stimulation). The results confirm the predicted emergence of very large differences in expression of individual genes and sets of genes. Network analysis of the results identified clusters of co-expressed genes that vary between individuals and suggested the existence of trans-acting variation in the expression in macrophages of the interferon response factor family that distinguishes the parental broiler and layer birds and influences the global response to lipopolysaccharide. This study shows that the impact of inbreeding on immune cell gene expression can be substantial at the transcriptional level, and potentially opens a route to accelerate selection using specific alleles known to be associated with desirable expression levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Freem
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Kim M. Summers
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia
| | - Almas A. Gheyas
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Androniki Psifidi
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kay Boulton
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda MacCallum
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Rakhi Harne
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jenny O’Dell
- The Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J. Bush
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - David A. Hume
- Mater Research Institute-University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute, Woolloongabba, QLD, Australia
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