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Goto Y, Mizobuchi H. Pathological roles of macrophages in Leishmania infections. Parasitol Int 2023; 94:102738. [PMID: 36738983 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2023.102738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are the major host cells for Leishmania parasites, and determine the fate of infection by either limiting or allowing growth of the parasites, resulting in development or control of leishmaniasis, respectively. They also play important roles in causing pathological outcomes during Leishmania infection. The pathophysiology is complex and include a wide variety of molecular and cellular responses including enhancement of inflammatory responses by releasing cytokines, causing damages to surrounding cells by reactive oxygen species, or disordered phagocytosis of other cells. It is of note that disease severity in leishmaniasis sometimes does not correlate with parasite burdens, indicating that pathological roles of macrophages are not necessarily linked to their parasite-killing activities that are often defined by M1/M2 status. Here, we review the roles of macrophages in leishmaniasis with a focus on their pathological mechanisms in disease development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Goto
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Haruka Mizobuchi
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Rebouças-Silva J, Amorim NA, Jesus-Santos FH, de Lima JA, Lima JB, Berretta AA, Borges VM. Leishmanicidal and immunomodulatory properties of Brazilian green propolis extract (EPP-AF ®) and a gel formulation in a pre-clinical model. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1013376. [PMID: 36843932 PMCID: PMC9949379 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1013376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a widespread group of neglected vector-borne tropical diseases that possess serious therapeutic limitations. Propolis has been extensively used in traditional medical applications due to its range of biological effects, including activity against infectious agents. Here we evaluated the leishmanicidal and immunomodulatory properties of Brazilian green propolis extract (EPP-AF®) and a gel formulation incorporating EPP-AF®, in both in vitro and in vivo models of Leishmania amazonensis infection. Propolis extract, obtained from a standardized blend following hydroalcoholic extraction, showed the characteristic fingerprint of Brazilian green propolis as confirmed by HPLC/DAD. A carbopol 940 gel formulation was obtained containing propolis glycolic extract at 3.6% w/w. The release profile, assessed using the Franz diffusion cell protocol, demonstrated a gradual and prolonged release of p-coumaric acid and artepillin C from the carbomer gel matrix. Quantification of p-coumaric acid and artepillin C in the gel formulation over time revealed that p-coumaric acid followed the Higuchi model, dependent on the disintegration of the pharmaceutical preparation, while artepillin C followed a zero-order profile with sustained release. In vitro analysis revealed the ability of EPP-AF® to reduce the infection index of infected macrophages (p < 0.05), while also modulating the production of inflammatory biomarkers. Decreases in nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 levels were observed (p < 0.01), suggesting low iNOS and COX-2 activity. Furthermore, EPP-AF® treatment was found to induce heme oxygenase-1 antioxidant enzyme expression in both uninfected and L. amazonensis-infected cells, as well as inhibit IL-1β production in infected cells (p < 0.01). ERK-1/2 phosphorylation was positively correlated with TNF-α production (p < 0.05), yet no impact on parasite load was detected. In vivo analysis indicated the effectiveness of topical treatment with EPP-AF® gel alone (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01), or in combination with pentavalent antimony (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001), in the reduction of lesion size in the ears of L. amazonensis-infected BALB/c mice after seven or 3 weeks of treatment, respectively. Taken together, the present results reinforce the leishmanicidal and immunomodulatory effects of Brazilian green propolis, and demonstrate promising potential for the EPP-AF® propolis gel formulation as a candidate for adjuvant therapy in the treatment of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Rebouças-Silva
- Laboratory of Inflammation and Biomarkers, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil,Faculty of Medicine of Bahia, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Nathaly Alcazar Amorim
- Laboratory of Research, Development and Innovation, Apis Flora Industrial e Comercial Ltda, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Flávio Henrique Jesus-Santos
- Laboratory of Inflammation and Biomarkers, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil,Faculty of Medicine of Bahia, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Jéssica Aparecida de Lima
- Laboratory of Research, Development and Innovation, Apis Flora Industrial e Comercial Ltda, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Andresa A. Berretta
- Laboratory of Research, Development and Innovation, Apis Flora Industrial e Comercial Ltda, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil,*Correspondence: Andresa A. Berretta, ; Valéria M. Borges,
| | - Valéria M. Borges
- Laboratory of Inflammation and Biomarkers, Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil,Faculty of Medicine of Bahia, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil,*Correspondence: Andresa A. Berretta, ; Valéria M. Borges,
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Gopu B, Kour P, Pandian R, Singh K. Insights into the drug screening approaches in leishmaniasis. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 114:109591. [PMID: 36700771 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2022.109591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis, a tropically neglected disease, is responsible for the high mortality and morbidity ratio in poverty-stricken areas. Currently, no vaccine is available for the complete cure of the disease. Current chemotherapeutic regimens face the limitations of drug resistance and toxicity concerns indicating a great need to develop better chemotherapeutic leads that are orally administrable, potent, non-toxic, and cost-effective. The anti-leishmanial drug discovery process accelerated the desire for large-scale drug screening assays and high-throughput screening (HTS) technology to identify new chemo-types that can be used as potential drug molecules to control infection. Using the HTS approach, about one million compounds can be screened daily within the shortest possible time for biological activity using automation tools, miniaturized assay formats, and large-scale data analysis. Classical and modern in vitro screening assays have led to the progression of active compounds further to ex vivo and in vivo studies. In the present review, we emphasized on the HTS approaches employed in the leishmanial drug discovery program. Recent in vitro screening assays are widely explored to discover new chemical scaffolds. Developing appropriate experimental animal models and their related techniques is necessary to understand the pathophysiological processes and disease host responses, paving the way for unraveling novel therapies against leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boobalan Gopu
- Animal House Facility, Pharmacology Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India.
| | - Parampreet Kour
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, India
| | - Ramajayan Pandian
- Animal House Facility, Pharmacology Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Kuljit Singh
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India.
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Oliveira MM, Bonturi CR, Salu BR, Oliva MLV, Mortara RA, Orikaza CM. Modulation of STAT-1, STAT-3, and STAT-6 activities in THP-1 derived macrophages infected with two Trypanosoma cruzi strains. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1038332. [PMID: 36389843 PMCID: PMC9643828 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1038332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the causative protozoan of Chagas’ Disease, a neglected tropical disease that affects 6−7 million people worldwide. Interaction of the parasite with the host immune system is a key factor in disease progression and chronic symptoms. Although the human immune system is capable of controlling the disease, the parasite has numerous evasion mechanisms that aim to maintain intracellular persistence and survival. Due to the pronounced genetic variability of T. cruzi, co-infections or mixed infections with more than one parasite strain have been reported in the literature. The intermodulation in such cases is unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the co-infection of T. cruzi strains G and CL compared to their individual infections in human macrophages derived from THP-1 cells activated by classical or alternative pathways. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that trypomastigotes were more infective than extracellular amastigotes (EAs) and that strain G could infect more macrophages than strain CL. Classically activated macrophages showed lower number of infected cells and IL-4-stimulated cells displayed increased CL-infected macrophages. However, co-infection was a rare event. CL EAs decreased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), whereas G trypomastigotes displayed increased ROS detection in classically activated cells. Co-infection did not affect ROS production. Monoinfection by strain G or CL mainly induced an anti-inflammatory cytokine profile by decreasing inflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-1β) and/or increasing IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β. Co-infection led to a predominant inflammatory milieu, with reduced IL-10 and TGF-β, and/or promotion of IFN-γ and IL-1β release. Infection by strain G reduced activation of intracellular signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) factors. In EAs, monoinfections impaired STAT-1 activity and promoted phosphorylation of STAT-3, both changes may prolong cell survival. Coinfected macrophages displayed pronounced activation of all STATs examined. These activations likely promoted parasite persistence and survival of infected cells. The collective results demonstrate that although macrophages respond to both strains, T. cruzi can modulate the intracellular environment, inducing different responses depending on the strain, parasite infective form, and co-infection or monoinfection. The modulation influences parasite persistence and survival of infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Martins Oliveira
- ¹Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo - UNIFESP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila Ramalho Bonturi
- ²Biochemistry Department, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo - UNIFESP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bruno Ramos Salu
- ²Biochemistry Department, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo - UNIFESP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Luiza Vilela Oliva
- ²Biochemistry Department, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo - UNIFESP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renato Arruda Mortara
- ¹Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo - UNIFESP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cristina Mary Orikaza
- ¹Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Federal University of São Paulo - UNIFESP, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Cristina Mary Orikaza,
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Paul R, Banerjee S, Sen S, Dubey P, Maji S, Bachhawat AK, Datta R, Gupta A. A novel leishmanial copper P-type ATPase plays a vital role in parasite infection and intracellular survival. J Biol Chem 2021; 298:101539. [PMID: 34958799 PMCID: PMC8800121 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper (Cu) is essential for all life forms; however, in excess, it becomes toxic. Toxic properties of Cu are known to be utilized by host species against various pathogenic invasions. Leishmania, in both free-living and intracellular forms, exhibits appreciable tolerance toward Cu stress. While determining the mechanism of Cu-stress evasion employed by Leishmania, we identified and characterized a hitherto unknown Cu-ATPase in Leishmania major and established its role in parasite survival in host macrophages. This novel L. major Cu-ATPase, LmATP7, exhibits homology with its orthologs at multiple motifs. In promastigotes, LmATP7 primarily localized at the plasma membrane. We also show that LmATP7 exhibits Cu-dependent expression patterns and complements Cu transport in a Cu-ATPase-deficient yeast strain. Promastigotes overexpressing LmATP7 exhibited higher survival upon Cu stress, indicating efficacious Cu export compared with Wt and heterozygous LmATP7 knockout parasites. We further explored macrophage–Leishmania interactions with respect to Cu stress. We found that Leishmania infection triggers upregulation of major mammalian Cu exporter, ATP7A, in macrophages, and trafficking of ATP7A from the trans-Golgi network to endolysosomes in macrophages harboring amastigotes. Simultaneously, in Leishmania, we observed a multifold increase in LmATP7 transcripts as the promastigote becomes established in macrophages and morphs to the amastigote form. Finally, overexpressing LmATP7 in parasites increases amastigote survivability within macrophages, whereas knocking it down reduces survivability drastically. Mice injected in their footpads with an LmATP7-overexpressing strain showed significantly larger lesions and higher amastigote loads as compared with controls and knockouts. These data establish the role of LmATP7 in parasite infectivity and intramacrophagic survivability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupam Paul
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal -741246, India
| | - Sourav Banerjee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal -741246, India
| | - Samarpita Sen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal -741246, India
| | - Pratiksha Dubey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Knowledge city, Sector 81, Manauli, PO, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab-140306, India
| | - Saptarshi Maji
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal -741246, India
| | - Anand K Bachhawat
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Knowledge city, Sector 81, Manauli, PO, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab-140306, India
| | - Rupak Datta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal -741246, India.
| | - Arnab Gupta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur, West Bengal -741246, India.
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Vacas A, Fernández-Rubio C, Larrea E, Peña-Guerrero J, Nguewa PA. LmjF.22.0810 from Leishmania major Modulates the Th2-Type Immune Response and Is Involved in Leishmaniasis Outcome. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8110452. [PMID: 33114674 PMCID: PMC7692454 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8110452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel serine/threonine protein kinase, LmjF.22.0810, was recently described in Leishmania major. After generating an L. major cell line overexpressing LmjF.22.0810 (named LmJ3OE), the ability of this novel protein to modulate the Th2-type immune response was analyzed. Our results suggest that the protein kinase LmjF.22.0810 might be involved in leishmaniasis outcomes. Indeed, our study outlined the LmJ3OE parasites infectivity in vitro and in vivo. Transgenic parasites displayed lower phagocytosis rates in vitro, and their promastigote forms exhibited lower expression levels of virulence factors compared to their counterparts in control parasites. In addition, LmJ3OE parasites developed significantly smaller footpad swelling in susceptible BALB/c mice. Hematoxylin-eosin staining allowed the observation of a lower inflammatory infiltrate in the footpad from LmJ3OE-infected mice compared to animals inoculated with control parasites. Gene expression of Th2-associated cytokines and effectors revealed a dramatically lower induction in interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, and arginase 1 (ARG1) mRNA levels at the beginning of the swelling; no expression change was found in Th1-associated cytokines except for IL-12. Accordingly, such results were validated by immunohistochemistry studies, illustrating a weaker expression of ARG1 and a similar induction for inducible NO synthase (iNOS) in footpads from LmJ3OE-infected mice compared to control L. major infected animals. Furthermore, the parasite burden was lower in footpads from LmJ3OE-infected mice. Our analysis indicated that such significant smaller footpad swellings might be due to an impairment of the Th2 immune response that subsequently benefits Th1 prevalence. Altogether, these studies depict LmjF.22.0810 as a potential modulator of host immune responses to Leishmania. Finally, this promising target might be involved in the modulation of infection outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Vacas
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, ISTUN Institute of Tropical Health, IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), University of Navarra, E-31008 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain; (A.V.); (C.F.-R.); (J.P.-G.)
| | - Celia Fernández-Rubio
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, ISTUN Institute of Tropical Health, IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), University of Navarra, E-31008 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain; (A.V.); (C.F.-R.); (J.P.-G.)
| | - Esther Larrea
- ISTUN Institute of Tropical Health, Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), University of Navarra, E-31008 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain;
| | - José Peña-Guerrero
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, ISTUN Institute of Tropical Health, IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), University of Navarra, E-31008 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain; (A.V.); (C.F.-R.); (J.P.-G.)
| | - Paul A. Nguewa
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, ISTUN Institute of Tropical Health, IdiSNA (Navarra Institute for Health Research), University of Navarra, E-31008 Pamplona, Navarra, Spain; (A.V.); (C.F.-R.); (J.P.-G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-948-425-600 (ext. 6434)
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Bastos DSS, Miranda BM, Fialho Martins TV, Guimarães Ervilha LO, Souza ACF, de Oliveira Emerick S, Carneiro da Silva A, Novaes RD, Neves MM, Santos EC, de Oliveira LL, Marques-da-Silva EDA. Lipophosphoglycan-3 recombinant protein vaccine controls hepatic parasitism and prevents tissue damage in mice infected by Leishmania infantum chagasi. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 126:110097. [PMID: 32203891 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS In this work, we aimed to evaluate the effects of the Leishmania infantum chagasi infection on the liver of vaccinated mice, considering parameters of tissue damage and the inflammatory response elicited by vaccination. MAIN METHODS We used recombinant LPG3 protein (rLPG3) as immunogen in BALB/c mice before challenge with promastigote forms of L. infantum chagasi. The animals were separated into five groups: NI: non-infected animals; NV: non-vaccinated; SAP: treated with saponin; rLPG3: immunized with rLPG3; rLPG3 + SAP: immunized with rLPG3 plus SAP. The experiment was conducted in replicate, and the vaccination protocol consisted of three subcutaneous doses of rLPG3 (40 μg + two boosters of 20 μg). The mice were challenged two weeks after the last immunization. KEY FINDINGS Our results showed that rLPG3 + SAP immunization decreased the parasite burden in 99 %, conferring immunological protection in the liver of the infected animals. Moreover, the immunization improved the antioxidant defenses, increasing CAT and GST activity, while reducing the levels of oxidative stress markers, such as H2O2 and NO3/NO2, and carbonyl protein in the organ. As a consequence, rLPG3 + SAP immunization preserved tissue integrity and reduced the granuloma formation, inflammatory infiltrate and serum levels of AST, ALT, and ALP. SIGNIFICANCE Taken together, these results showed that rLPG3 vaccine confers liver protection against L. infantum chagasi in mice, while maintaining the liver tissue protected against the harmful inflammatory effects caused by the vaccine followed by the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Rômulo Dias Novaes
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Structural Biology, Federal University of Alfenas, MG, Brazil
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