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Ramírez‐Sánchez DA, Canizalez‐Román A, León‐Sicairos N, Pérez Martínez G. The anticancer activity of bovine lactoferrin is reduced by deglycosylation and it follows a different pathway in cervix and colon cancer cells. Food Sci Nutr 2024; 12:3516-3528. [PMID: 38726451 PMCID: PMC11077203 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.4020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Bovine lactoferrin (bLF) is a glycosylated protein with purported beneficial properties. The aim of this work was to determine the role of bLF glycosylation in the adhesion, internalization, and growth inhibition of cancer cells. The viability of cervix (HeLa) and colon (Caco-2) cancer cells (MTT assay and epifluorescence microscopy) was inhibited by bLF, while deglycosylated bLF (bLFdeg) had no effect. Adhesion to cell surfaces was quantified by immunofluorescence assay and showed that bLF was able to bind more efficiently to both cell lines than bLFdeg. Microscopic observations indicated that bLF glycosylation favored bLF binding to epithelial cells and that it was endocytosed through caveolin-1-mediated internalization. In addition, the mechanism of action of bLF on cancer cell proliferation was investigated by determining the amount of phosphorylated intermediates of signaling pathways such as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and protein kinase B (known as Akt). Chemoluminescence immunoassay of phosphorylated intermediates showed that bLF inhibited Akt phosphorylation, consistent with its growth inhibiting activity. This assay also indicated that the bLF receptor/signaling pathways may be different in the two cell lines, Caco-2 and HeLa. This work confirmed the effect of glycosylated bLF in inhibiting cancer cell growth and that glycosylation is required for optimal surface adhesion, internalization, and inhibition of the ERK/Akt pathway of cell proliferation through glycosylated cell surface receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana A. Ramírez‐Sánchez
- Programa Regional de Noroeste para el Doctorado en BiotecnologíaUniversidad Autónoma de Sinaloa Facultad de Ciencias Químico BiológicasCuliacanMexico
| | - Adrián Canizalez‐Román
- Unidad de Investigación, Facultad de MedicinaUniversidad Autónoma de SinaloaCuliacanMexico
- Servicios de Salud de SinaloaHospital de la MujerCuliacanMexico
| | - Nidia León‐Sicairos
- Unidad de Investigación, Facultad de MedicinaUniversidad Autónoma de SinaloaCuliacanMexico
- Servicios de Salud de Sinaloa, Departamento de Investigación del Hospital Pediátrico de SinaloaCuliacanMexico
| | - Gaspar Pérez Martínez
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones CientificasInstituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de AlimentosPaternaSpain
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Guan B, Cao X, Yang M, Yue X, Liu D. Comparative Site-Specific O-Glycosylation Analysis of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane Proteome in Donkey Colostrum and Mature Milk. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:1405-1417. [PMID: 38181196 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c07805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Donkey milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) proteins are a class of membrane-bound secreted proteins with broad-spectrum biofunctional activities; however, their site-specific O-glycosylation landscapes have not been systematically mapped. In this study, an in-depth MFGM O-glycoproteome profile of donkey milk during lactation was constructed based on an intact glycopeptide-centered, label-free glycoproteomics pipeline, with 2137 site-specific O-glycans from 1121 MFGM glycoproteins and 619 site-specific O-glycans from 217 MFGM glycoproteins identified in donkey colostrum and donkey mature milk, respectively. As lactation progressed, the number of site-specific O-glycans from three glycoproteins significantly increased, whereas that of 11 site-specific O-glycans from five glycoproteins significantly decreased. Furthermore, donkey MFGM O-glycoproteins with core-1 and core-2 core structures and Lewis and sialylated branch structures may be involved in regulating apoptosis. The findings of this study reveal the differences in the composition of donkey MFGM O-glycoproteins and their site-specific O-glycosylation modification dynamic change rules during lactation, providing a molecular basis for understanding the complexity and biological functions of donkey MFGM protein O-glycosylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyuan Guan
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiashan 314100, China
| | - Xueyan Cao
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 11086, China
| | - Mei Yang
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 11086, China
| | - Xiqing Yue
- College of Food Science, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 11086, China
| | - Donghong Liu
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, National-Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Intelligent Food Technology and Equipment, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang Engineering Laboratory of Food Technology and Equipment, Fuli Institute of Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiashan 314100, China
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Xie Y, Butler M. Construction of InstantPC derivatized glycan GU database: A foundation work for high-throughput and high-sensitivity glycomic analysis. Glycobiology 2021; 32:289-303. [PMID: 34972858 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwab128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycosylation is well-recognized as a critical quality attribute of biotherapeutics being routinely monitored to ensure desired product quality, safety, and efficacy. Additionally, as one of the most prominent and complex post-translational modifications, glycosylation plays a key role in disease manifestation. Changes in glycosylation may serve as a specific and sensitive biomarker for disease diagnostics and prognostics. However, the conventional 2-aminobenzamide based N-glycosylation analysis procedure is time-consuming and insensitive, with poor reproducibility. We have evaluated an innovative streamlined 96-well-plate-based platform utilizing InstantPC label for high-throughput, high-sensitivity glycan profiling, which is user-friendly, robust, and ready for automation. However, the limited availability of InstantPC labelled glycan standards has significantly hampered the applicability and transferability of this platform for expedited glycan structural profiling. To address this challenge, we have constructed a detailed InstantPC labelled glycan glucose unit database through analysis of human serum and a variety of other glycoproteins from various sources. Following preliminary hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection separation and analysis, glycoproteins with complex glycan profiles were subjected to further fractionation by weak anion exchange hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography and exoglycosidase sequential digestion for cross-validation of the glycan assignment. Hydrophilic interaction ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry was subsequently utilised for glycan fragmentation and accurate glycan mass confirmation. The constructed InstantPC glycan GU database is accurate and robust. It is believed that this database will enhance the application of the developed platform for high-throughput, high-sensitivity glycan profiling, and eventually advance glycan-based biopharmaceutical production and disease biomarker discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjing Xie
- National Institute for Bioprocessing Research and Training, Foster Avenue, Mount Merrion, Blackrock, Co. Dublin, Ireland
| | - Michael Butler
- National Institute for Bioprocessing Research and Training, Foster Avenue, Mount Merrion, Blackrock, Co. Dublin, Ireland
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Silva-Lagos LA, Pillay J, van Meurs M, Smink A, van der Voort PHJ, de Vos P. DAMPening COVID-19 Severity by Attenuating Danger Signals. Front Immunol 2021; 12:720192. [PMID: 34456928 PMCID: PMC8397524 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.720192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 might lead to multi-organ failure and, in some cases, to death. The COVID-19 severity is associated with a “cytokine storm.” Danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are proinflammatory molecules that can activate pattern recognition receptors, such as toll-like receptors (TLRs). DAMPs and TLRs have not received much attention in COVID-19 but can explain some of the gender-, weight- and age-dependent effects. In females and males, TLRs are differentially expressed, likely contributing to higher COVID-19 severity in males. DAMPs and cytokines associated with COVID-19 mortality are elevated in obese and elderly individuals, which might explain the higher risk for severer COVID-19 in these groups. Adenosine signaling inhibits the TLR/NF-κB pathway and, through this, decreases inflammation and DAMPs’ effects. As vaccines will not be effective in all susceptible individuals and as new vaccine-resistant SARS-CoV-2 mutants might develop, it remains mandatory to find means to dampen COVID-19 disease severity, especially in high-risk groups. We propose that the regulation of DAMPs via adenosine signaling enhancement might be an effective way to lower the severity of COVID-19 and prevent multiple organ failure in the absence of severe side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis A Silva-Lagos
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Janesh Pillay
- Department of Intensive Care, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Matijs van Meurs
- Department of Intensive Care, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Alexandra Smink
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Peter H J van der Voort
- Department of Intensive Care, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Paul de Vos
- Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), Groningen, Netherlands
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5
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Mattar EH, Elrashdy F, Almehdar HA, Uversky VN, Redwan EM. Natural resources to control COVID-19: could lactoferrin amend SARS-CoV-2 infectivity? PeerJ 2021; 9:e11303. [PMID: 33954061 PMCID: PMC8052957 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The world population is still facing the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Such a challenge requires complicated tools to control, namely vaccines, effective cures, and complementary agents. Here we present one candidate for the role of an effective cure and/or complementary agent: lactoferrin. It is the cross-talking mediator between many organs/cellular systems in the body. It serves as a physiological, immunological, and anti-microbial barrier, and acts as a regulator molecule. Furthermore, lactoferrin has receptors on most tissues cells, and is a rich source for bioactive peptides, particularly in the digestive system. In the past months, in vitro and in vivo evidence has accumulated regarding lactoferrin's ability to control SARS-CoV-2 infectivity in different indicated scenarios. Also, lactoferrin or whey milk (of human or other mammal's origin) is a cheap, easily available, and safe agent, the use of which can produce promising results. Pharmaceutical and/or food supplementary formulas of lactoferrin could be particularly effective in controlling the gastrointestinal COVID-19-associated symptoms and could limit the fecal-oral viral infection transmission, through mechanisms that mimic that of norovirus infection control by lactoferrin via induction of intestinal innate immunity. This natural avenue may be effective not only in symptomatic patients, but could also be more helpful in asymptomatic patients as a main or adjuvant treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehab H. Mattar
- Biological Science Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fatma Elrashdy
- Department of Endemic Medicine and Hepatogastroenterology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hussein A. Almehdar
- Biological Science Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Vladimir N. Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States
| | - Elrashdy M. Redwan
- Biological Science Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Wei YS, Feng K, Li SF, Hu TG, Linhardt RJ, Zong MH, Wu H. Oral fate and stabilization technologies of lactoferrin: a systematic review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:6341-6358. [PMID: 33749401 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1900774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Lactoferrin (Lf), a bioactive protein initially found in many biological secretions including milk, is regarded as the nutritional supplement or therapeutic ligand due to its multiple functions. Research on its mode of action reveals that intact Lf or its active peptide (i.e., lactoferricin) shows an important multifunctional performance. Oral delivery is considered as the most convenient administration route for this bioactive protein. Unfortunately, Lf is sensitive to the gastrointestinal (GI) physicochemical stresses and lactoferricin is undetectable in GI digesta. This review introduces the functionality of Lf at the molecular level and its degradation behavior in GI tract is discussed in detail. Subsequently, the absorption and transport of Lf from intestine into the blood circulation, which is pivotal to its health promoting effects in various tissues, and some assisting labeling methods are discussed. Stabilization technologies aiming at preserving the structural integrity and functional properties of orally administrated Lf are summarized and compared. Altogether, this work comprehensively reviews the structure-function relationship of Lf, its oral fate and the development of stabilization technologies for the enhancement of the oral bioavailability of Lf. The existing limitations and scope for future research are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Shan Wei
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kun Feng
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shu-Fang Li
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou, China
| | - Teng-Gen Hu
- Sericultural & Agri-Food Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory of Functional Foods, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Agricultural Products Processing, Guangzhou, China
| | - Robert J Linhardt
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Min-Hua Zong
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hong Wu
- School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology/Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, Guangzhou, China
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Brink LR, Chichlowski M, Pastor N, Thimmasandra Narayanappa A, Shah N. In the Age of Viral Pandemic, Can Ingredients Inspired by Human Milk and Infant Nutrition Be Repurposed to Support the Immune System? Nutrients 2021; 13:870. [PMID: 33800961 PMCID: PMC7999376 DOI: 10.3390/nu13030870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2020, with the advent of a pandemic touching all aspects of global life, there is a renewed interest in nutrition solutions to support the immune system. Infants are vulnerable to infection and breastfeeding has been demonstrated to provide protection. As such, human milk is a great model for sources of functional nutrition ingredients, which may play direct roles in protection against viral diseases. This review aims to summarize the literature around human milk (lactoferrin, milk fat globule membrane, osteopontin, glycerol monolaurate and human milk oligosaccharides) and infant nutrition (polyunsaturated fatty acids, probiotics and postbiotics) inspired ingredients for support against viral infections and the immune system more broadly. We believe that the application of these ingredients can span across all life stages and thus apply to both pediatric and adult nutrition. We highlight the opportunities for further research in this field to help provide tangible nutrition solutions to support one's immune system and fight against infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren R. Brink
- Medical and Scientific Affairs, Nutrition, Reckitt Benckiser, Evansville, IN 47721, USA; (M.C.); (N.P.)
| | - Maciej Chichlowski
- Medical and Scientific Affairs, Nutrition, Reckitt Benckiser, Evansville, IN 47721, USA; (M.C.); (N.P.)
| | - Nitida Pastor
- Medical and Scientific Affairs, Nutrition, Reckitt Benckiser, Evansville, IN 47721, USA; (M.C.); (N.P.)
| | | | - Neil Shah
- Medical and Scientific Affairs, Nutrition, Reckitt Benckiser, Slough SL1 3UH, UK;
- University College London, Great Ormond Street, London WC1N 3JH, UK
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Valk-Weeber RL, Nichols K, Dijkhuizen L, Bijl E, van Leeuwen SS. Variations in N-linked glycosylation of glycosylation-dependent cell adhesion molecule 1 (GlyCAM-1) whey protein: Intercow differences and dietary effects. J Dairy Sci 2021; 104:5056-5068. [PMID: 33551170 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2020-19297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In bovine milk serum, the whey proteins with the highest N-glycan contribution are lactoferrin, IgG, and glycosylation-dependent cellular adhesion molecule 1 (GlyCAM-1); GlyCAM-1 is the dominant N-linked glycoprotein in bovine whey protein products. Whey proteins are base ingredients in a range of food products, including infant formulas. Glycan monosaccharide composition and variation thereof may affect functionality, such as the interaction of glycans with the immune system via recognition receptors. It is therefore highly relevant to understand whether and how the glycosylation of whey proteins (and their functionality) can be modulated. We recently showed that the glycoprofile of GlyCAM-1 varies between cows and during early lactation, whereas the glycoprofile of lactoferrin was highly constant. In the current study, we evaluated intercow differences and the effects of macronutrient supply on the N-linked glycosylation profiles of the major whey proteins in milk samples of Holstein-Friesian cows. Overall, approximately 60% of the N-glycan pool in milk protein was sialylated, or fucosylated, or both; GlyCAM-1 contributed approximately 78% of the total number of glycans in the overall whey protein N-linked glycan pool. The degree of fucosylation ranged from 44.8 to 73.3% between cows, and this variation was mainly attributed to the glycans of GlyCAM-1. Dietary supplementation with fat or protein did not influence the overall milk serum glycoprofile. Postruminal infusion of palm olein, glucose, and essential AA resulted in shifts in the degree of GlyCAM-1 fucosylation within individual cows, ranging in some cases from 50 to 71% difference in degree of fucosylation, regardless of treatment. Overall, these data demonstrate that the glycosylation, and particularly fucosylation, of GlyCAM-1 was variable, although these shifts appear to be related more to individual cow variation than to nutrient supply. To our knowledge, this is the first report of variation in glycosylation of a milk glycoprotein in mature, noncolostral milk. The functional implications of variable GlyCAM-1 fucosylation remain to be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rivca L Valk-Weeber
- Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Kelly Nichols
- Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Lubbert Dijkhuizen
- Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands; CarbExplore Research BV, Zernikepark 12, 9747 AN Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Etske Bijl
- Dairy Science and Technology, Food Quality and Design Group, Wageningen University and Research, PO Box 17, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Sander S van Leeuwen
- Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands; Sector Human Nutrition and Health, Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ, Groningen, the Netherlands.
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Rascón-Cruz Q, Espinoza-Sánchez EA, Siqueiros-Cendón TS, Nakamura-Bencomo SI, Arévalo-Gallegos S, Iglesias-Figueroa BF. Lactoferrin: A Glycoprotein Involved in Immunomodulation, Anticancer, and Antimicrobial Processes. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26010205. [PMID: 33401580 PMCID: PMC7795860 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26010205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactoferrin is an iron binding glycoprotein with multiple roles in the body. Its participation in apoptotic processes in cancer cells, its ability to modulate various reactions of the immune system, and its activity against a broad spectrum of pathogenic microorganisms, including respiratory viruses, have made it a protein of broad interest in pharmaceutical and food research and industry. In this review, we have focused on describing the most important functions of lactoferrin and the possible mechanisms of action that lead to its function.
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Coban C. The host targeting effect of chloroquine in malaria. Curr Opin Immunol 2020; 66:98-107. [PMID: 32823144 PMCID: PMC7431399 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2020.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Due to the rapid onset and spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, the treatment of COVID-19 patients by hydroxychloroquine alone or in combination with other drugs has captured a great deal of attention and triggered considerable debate. Historically, the worldwide use of quinoline based-drugs has led to a spectacular reduction in death from malaria. Unfortunately, scientists have been forced to seek alternative drugs to treat malaria due to the emergence of chloroquine-resistant parasites in the 1960s. The repurposing of hydroxychloroquine against viral infections, various types of cancer and autoimmune diseases has been ongoing for more than 70 years, with no clear understanding of its mechanism of action (MOA). Here, we closely examine the MOA of this old but influential drug in and beyond malaria. Better insights into how chloroquine targets the host's cellular and immune responses may help to develop applications against to new pathogens and diseases, and perhaps even restore the clinical utility of chloroquine against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cevayir Coban
- Division of Malaria Immunology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Institute of Medical Science (IMSUT), The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Laboratory of Malaria Immunology, Immunology Frontier Research Center (IFReC), Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
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