Exploring the Emerging Role of the Gut Microbiota and Tumor Microenvironment in Cancer Immunotherapy

Modulation of human gut microbiota by linear and branched fructooligosaccharides in an in vitro colon model (TIM-2)

AIMS

This study aimed to compare the effects of linear and branched fructooligosaccharides (FOS) extracted from chicory and grass (Lolium perenne), respectively on human microbiota composition, diversity, and metabolism.

METHODS AND RESULTS

To test the effects of linear and branched FOS on human microbiota we used the artificial in vitro human colon model (TIM-2). Microbiota composition and diversity were assessed by V3-V4 16S rRNA metagenomic sequencing, followed by differential taxa abundance and alpha/beta diversity analyses. SCFA/BCFA production was evaluated by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. As a result, branched FOS had the most beneficial effects on microbial diversity and metabolite production. Also, branched FOS significantly increased the abundance of commensal bacteria associated with maintaining healthy gut functions and controlling inflammation, such as Butyricicoccus, Erysipelotrichaceae, Phascolarctobacterium, and Sutterella. Linear FOS also significantly increased the abundance of some other commensal gut bacteria (Anaerobutyricum, Lachnospiraceae, Faecalibacterium), but there were no differences in diversity metrics compared to the control.

CONCLUSIONS

The study revealed that branched FOS had the most beneficial effects compared to the linear FOS in vitro, concerning microbiota modulation, and metabolite production, making this a good candidate for further studies in food biotechnology.

Interaction between intestinal flora and gastric cancer in tumor microenvironment

Gastric Cancer (GC) is a prevalent malignancy globally and is the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Recent researches focused on the correlation between intestinal flora and GC. Studies indicate that bacteria can influence the development of gastrointestinal tumors by releasing bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs). The Tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in tumor survival, with the interaction between intestinal flora, BEVs, and TME directly impacting tumor progression. Moreover, recent studies have demonstrated that intestinal microflora and BEVs can modify TME to enhance the effectiveness of antitumor drugs. This review article provides an overview and comparison of the biological targets through which the intestinal microbiome regulates TME, laying the groundwork for potential applications in tumor diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

Potential antitumor effects of short-chain fatty acids in breast cancer models

The effects of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) have been explored against cancer due to the crosstalk between gut microbiota alterations and the immune system as a crucial role in cancer development. We evaluated the SCFAs effects in both in vitro and in vivo breast cancer models. In vitro, the SCFAs displayed contrasting effects on viability index, according to the evaluation of breast cancer cells with different phenotypes, human MCF-7, SK-BR-3, MDA-MD-231, or the mouse 4T1 lineage. Acetate displayed minimal effects at concentrations up to 100 mM. Alternatively, propionate increases or reduces cell viability depending on the concentration. Butyrate and valerate showed consistent time- and concentration-dependent effects on the viability of human or mouse breast cancer cells. The selective FFA2 4-CMTB or FFA3 AR420626 receptor agonists failed to overtake the SCFA actions, except by modest inhibitory effects on MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cell viability. The FFA2 CATPB or FFA3 and β-hydroxybutyrate receptor antagonists lacked significant activity on human cell lines, although CATPB reduced 4T1 cell viability. Butyrate significantly affected cell morphology, clonogenicity, and migration, according to the evaluation of MDA-MB-231 and 4T1 cells. A preliminary examination of in vivo oral effects of butyrate, propionate, or valerate, dosed in prophylactic or therapeutic regimens, on several parameters evaluated in an orthotopic breast cancer model showed a reduction of lung metastasis in post-tumor induction butyrate-treated mice. Overall, the present results indicate that in vitro effects of SCFAs did not rely on FFA2 or FFA3 receptor activation, and they were not mirrored in vivo, at least at the tested conditions. Overall, the present results indicate potential in vitro inhibitory effects of SCFAs in breast cancer, independent of FFA2 or FFA3 receptor activation, and, in the metastatic breast cancer model, the butyrate-dosed therapeutic regimen reduced the number of lung metastases.

Overcoming the nutritional immunity by engineering iron-scavenging bacteria for cancer therapy

Certain bacteria demonstrate the ability to target and colonize the tumor microenvironment, a characteristic that positions them as innovative carriers for delivering various therapeutic agents in cancer therapy. Nevertheless, our understanding of how bacteria adapt their physiological condition to the tumor microenvironment remains elusive. In this work, we employed liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to examine the proteome of E. coli colonized in murine tumors. Compared to E. coli cultivated in the rich medium, we found that E. coli colonized in tumors notably upregulated the processes related to ferric ions, including the enterobactin biosynthesis and iron homeostasis. This finding indicated that the tumor is an iron-deficient environment to E. coli. We also found that the colonization of E. coli in the tumor led to an increased expression of lipocalin 2 (LCN2), a host protein that can sequester the enterobactin. We therefore engineered E. coli in order to evade the nutritional immunity provided by LCN2. By introducing the IroA cluster, the E. coli synthesizes the glycosylated enterobactin, which creates steric hindrance to avoid the LCN2 sequestration. The IroA-E. coli showed enhanced resistance to LCN2 and significantly improved the anti-tumor activity in mice. Moreover, the mice cured by the IroA-E. coli treatment became resistant to the tumor re-challenge, indicating the establishment of immunological memory. Overall, our study underscores the crucial role of bacteria's ability to acquire ferric ions within the tumor microenvironment for effective cancer therapy.

Mucosal-associated invariant T cells in cancer: dual roles, complex interactions and therapeutic potential

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells play diverse roles in cancer, infectious diseases, and immunotherapy. This review explores their intricate involvement in cancer, from early detection to their dual functions in promoting inflammation and mediating anti-tumor responses. Within the solid tumor microenvironment (TME), MAIT cells can acquire an 'exhausted' state and secrete tumor-promoting cytokines. On the other hand, MAIT cells are highly cytotoxic, and there is evidence that they may have an anti-tumor immune response. The frequency of MAIT cells and their subsets has also been shown to have prognostic value in several cancer types. Recent innovative approaches, such as programming MAIT cells with chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), provide a novel and exciting approach to utilizing these cells in cell-based cancer immunotherapy. Because MAIT cells have a restricted T cell receptor (TCR) and recognize a common antigen, this also mitigates potential graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) and opens the possibility of using allogeneic MAIT cells as off-the-shelf cell therapies in cancer. Additionally, we outline the interactions of MAIT cells with the microbiome and their critical role in infectious diseases and how this may impact the tumor responses of these cells. Understanding these complex roles can lead to novel therapeutic strategies harnessing the targeting capabilities of MAIT cells.

Causal relationship between gut microbiota and glioblastoma: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study

Background: Observational research and medical trials have suggested a connection between gut microbiota and glioblastoma, but it remains unclear if the relationship is causal. Method: A two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study was conducted by employing data from the MiBioGen consortium's largest genome-wide association study (n=18340) and the FinnGen consortium R8 release information (162 cases and 256,583 controls). Inverse variance weighted (IVW), weighted median estimator (WME), weighted model, MR-Egger, simple mode, and MR-PRESSO were used to determine the causal relationship between gut microbiota and glioblastoma. Reverse MR analysis was also performed on bacteria identified as causally related to glioblastoma. Results: Seven causal relationships were identified between genetic liability in the gut microbiota and glioblastoma, involving various bacterial families and genera. No significant causal effect was found on gut microbiota from glioblastoma, and no significant heterogeneity of instrumental variables (IVs) or horizontal pleiotropy was observed. Conclusion: A two-sample MR analysis reveals a causal association between the gut microbiota and glioblastoma, highlighting the need for more investigation to comprehend the processes behind this association.

Opportunities and challenges of CD47-targeted therapy in cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has emerged as a promising strategy for the treatment of cancer, with the tumor microenvironment (TME) playing a pivotal role in modulating the immune response. CD47, a cell surface protein, has been identified as a crucial regulator of the TME and a potential therapeutic target for cancer therapy. However, the precise functions and implications of CD47 in the TME during immunotherapy for cancer patients remain incompletely understood. This comprehensive review aims to provide an overview of CD47's multifaced role in TME regulation and immune evasion, elucidating its impact on various types of immunotherapy outcomes, including checkpoint inhibitors and CAR T-cell therapy. Notably, CD47-targeted therapies offer a promising avenue for improving cancer treatment outcomes, especially when combined with other immunotherapeutic approaches. The review also discusses current and potential CD47-targeted therapies being explored for cancer treatment and delves into the associated challenges and opportunities inherent in targeting CD47. Despite the demonstrated effectiveness of CD47-targeted therapies, there are potential problems, including unintended effects on healthy cells, hematological toxicities, and the development if resistance. Consequently, further research efforts are warranted to fully understand the underlying mechanisms of resistance and to optimize CD47-targeted therapies through innovative combination approaches, ultimately improving cancer treatment outcomes. Overall, this comprehensive review highlights the significance of CD47 as a promising target for cancer immunotherapy and provides valuable insight into the challenges and opportunities in developing effective CD47-targeted therapies for cancer treatment.

Diversification and deleterious role of microbiome in gastric cancer

Gut microbiota dictates the fate of several diseases, including cancer. Most gastric cancers (GC) belong to gastric adenocarcinomas (GAC). Helicobacter pylori colonizes the gastric epithelium and is the causative agent of 75% of all stomach malignancies globally. This bacterium has several virulence factors, including cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA), vacuolating cytotoxin (VacA), and outer membrane proteins (OMPs), all of which have been linked to the development of gastric cancer. In addition, bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Streptococcus, Clostridium, Haemophilus, Veillonella, Staphylococcus, and Lactobacillus play an important role in the development of gastric cancer. Besides, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Streptococcus were found in greater abundance in GAC patients. To identify potential diagnostic and therapeutic interventions for GC, it is essential to understand the mechanistic role of H. pylori and other bacteria that contribute to gastric carcinogenesis. Furthermore, understanding bacteria-host interactions and bacteria-induced inflammatory pathways in the host is critical for developing treatment targets for gastric cancer.

Modulation of gut microbiota: a novel approach to enhancing the effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors

Although immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have greatly improved the prognosis of some cancer patients, the majority still fail to respond adequately, and the available biomarkers cannot reliably predict drug efficacy. The gut microbiota has received widespread attention among the various intrinsic and extrinsic factors contributing to drug resistance. As an essential regulator of physiological function, the impact of gut microbiota on host immunity and response to cancer therapy is increasingly recognized. Several studies have demonstrated significant differences in gut microbiota between responders and nonresponders. The gut microbiota associated with better clinical outcomes is called 'favorable gut microbiota'. Significantly, interventions can alter the gut microbiota. By shifting the gut microbiota to the 'favorable' one through various modifications, preclinical and clinical studies have yielded more pronounced responses and better clinical outcomes when combined with ICIs treatment, providing novel approaches to improve the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy. These findings may be attributed to the effects of gut microbiota and its metabolites on the immune microenvironment and the systemic immune system, but the underlying mechanisms remain to be discovered. In this review, we summarize the clinical evidence that the gut microbiota is strongly associated with the outcomes of ICI treatment and describe the gut microbiota characteristics associated with better clinical outcomes. We then expand on the current prevalent modalities of gut microbiota regulation, provide a comprehensive overview of preclinical and clinical research advances in improving the therapeutic efficacy and prognosis of ICIs by modulating gut microbiota, and suggest fundamental questions we need to address and potential directions for future research expansion.

Advances in the role of gut microbiota in the regulation of the tumor microenvironment (Review)

As a protector of human health, the gut microbiota plays an important role in the development of the immune system during childhood, and the regulation of dietary habits, metabolism and immune system during adulthood. Dysregulated gut flora is not pathogenic, but it can weaken the protective effect of the immune system and cause various diseases. The tumor microenvironment is a physiological environment formed during tumor growth, which provides nutrients and growth factors necessary for tumor growth. As an important factor affecting the tumor microenvironment, the intestinal microflora affects the development of tumors through the mechanisms of gut and microflora metabolites, gene toxins and signaling pathways. The present article aimed to review the components and mechanisms of action, clinical applications, and biological targets of gut microbiota in the regulation of the tumor microenvironment. The present review provides novel insights for the future use of intestinal flora, to regulate the tumor microenvironment, to intervene in the occurrence, development, treatment and prognosis of tumors.

Gut microbiota deficiency ameliorates multiple myeloma and myeloma-related bone disease by Th17 cells in mice models

Purpose: Multiple myeloma, the second most common hematological tumor, is currently incurable. Multiple myeloma-related bone disease is a characteristic clinical symptom that seriously affects the survival and prognosis of patients. In recent years, gut microbiota has been shown to play an important role in the occurrence and development of multiple myeloma. However, whether and how it affects the development of myelomatous bone disease is unclear. Methods: To investigate the mechanism and influence of the microbiota on multiple myeloma and myeloma bone disease, a myeloma-gut microbiota deletion mice model was established. 16S rRNA sequencing was used to analysis of bacterial flora changes. Histochemical staining and bone micro-CT were used to assess the severity of bone disease. Bone marrow tumor load and spleen Th17 cells were detected by flow cytometry. Results: Histochemical staining revealed a reduced tumor burden after eliminating gut microbial communities in mice by administering a mixture of antibiotics. According to the 16S rRNA sequencing of intestinal contents, antibiotic treatment resulted in a significant change in the microbiota of the mice. Bone micro-CT demonstrated that antibiotic treatment could reduce bone lesions caused by myeloma while increasing mineral density, bone volume fraction, trabecular bone thickness, and trabecular number. Meanwhile, histochemical staining of the bone found that the enhanced bone resorption was weakened by the change of flora. These results were consistent with the concentration of IL17 in serum and the frequency of Th17 cells in spleen. Conclusions: Herein, the effects of the gut microbiome on myeloma bone disease are investigated for the first time, providing new insight into its pathogenesis and suggesting that gut microbiota may serve as a therapeutic target in multiple myeloma-associated bone diseases.

The role of tumor immune microenvironment in chordoma: promising immunotherapy strategies

Chordoma is a rare malignant bone tumor with limited therapeutic options, which is resistant to conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and targeted therapy is also shown with little efficacy. The long-standing delay in researching its mechanisms of occurrence and development has resulted in the dilemma of no effective treatment targets and no available drugs in clinical practice. In recent years, the role of the tumor immune microenvironment in driving tumor growth has become a hot and challenging topic in the field of cancer research. Immunotherapy has shown promising results in the treatment of various tumors. However, the study of the immune microenvironment of chordoma is still in its infancy. In this review, we aim to present a comprehensive reveal of previous exploration on the chordoma immune microenvironment and propose promising immunotherapy strategies for chordoma based on these characteristics.

The role of the symbiotic microecosystem in cancer: gut microbiota, metabolome, and host immunome

The gut microbiota is not just a simple nutritional symbiosis that parasitizes the host; it is a complex and dynamic ecosystem that coevolves actively with the host and is involved in a variety of biological activities such as circadian rhythm regulation, energy metabolism, and immune response. The development of the immune system and immunological functions are significantly influenced by the interaction between the host and the microbiota. The interactions between gut microbiota and cancer are of a complex nature. The critical role that the gut microbiota plays in tumor occurrence, progression, and treatment is not clear despite the already done research. The development of precision medicine and cancer immunotherapy further emphasizes the importance and significance of the question of how the microbiota takes part in cancer development, progression, and treatment. This review summarizes recent literature on the relationship between the gut microbiome and cancer immunology. The findings suggest the existence of a "symbiotic microecosystem" formed by gut microbiota, metabolome, and host immunome that is fundamental for the pathogenesis analysis and the development of therapeutic strategies for cancer.

Potential Ability of Probiotics in the Prevention and Treatment of Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer in the world, and its incidence rate and mortality are on the rise in many countries. In recent years, with the improvement of economic conditions, people's living habits have changed, including lack of physical activity, poor diet patterns and circadian rhythm disorder. These risk factors can change the colon environment and the composition of intestinal microbiota. This state is called intestinal imbalance, which increases the risk of cancer. Probiotics, a class of microorganisms that help maintain gut microbial homeostasis and alleviate dysbiosis, may help prevent inflammation and colorectal cancer. These probiotics inhibit or ameliorate the effects of dysbiosis through the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), modulation of immunity, maintenance of the intestinal epithelial barrier, pro-apoptotic mechanisms, and other mechanisms. This review aims to explain the interaction between probiotics, the gut microenvironment and the gut microbiota, and summarize reports on the possibility of probiotics in the prevention and treatment of colorectal cancer.

The Hippo Pathway Effectors YAP/TAZ-TEAD Oncoproteins as Emerging Therapeutic Targets in the Tumor Microenvironment

Various cancer cell-associated intrinsic and extrinsic inputs act on YAP/TAZ proteins to mediate the hyperactivation of the TEAD transcription factor-based transcriptome. This YAP/TAZ-TEAD activity can override the growth-limiting Hippo tumor-suppressor pathway that maintains normal tissue homeostasis. Herein, we provide an integrated summary of the contrasting roles of YAP/TAZ during normal tissue homeostasis versus tumor initiation and progression. In addition to upstream factors that regulate YAP/TAZ in the TME, critical insights on the emerging functions of YAP/TAZ in immune suppression and abnormal vasculature development during tumorigenesis are illustrated. Lastly, we discuss the current methods that intervene with the YAP/TAZ-TEAD oncogenic signaling pathway and the emerging applications of combination therapies, gut microbiota, and epigenetic plasticity that could potentiate the efficacy of chemo/immunotherapy as improved cancer therapeutic strategies.

The role of the gut microbiota in gastric cancer: the immunoregulation and immunotherapy

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers, leading to the deaths of millions of people worldwide. Therefore, early detection and effective therapeutic strategies are of great value for decreasing the occurrence of advanced GC. The human microbiota is involved not only in the maintenance of physiological conditions, but also in human diseases such as obesity, diabetes, allergic and atopic diseases, and cancer. Currently, the composition of the bacteria in the host, their functions, and their influence on disease progression and treatment are being discussed. Previous studies on the gut microbiome have mostly focused on Helicobacter pylori (Hp) owing to its significant role in the development of GC. Nevertheless, the enrichment and diversity of other bacteria that can modulate the tumor microenvironment are involved in the progression of GC and the efficacy of immunotherapy. This review provides systematic insight into the components of the gut microbiota and their application in GC, including the specific bacteria of GC, their immunoregulatory effect, and their diagnostic value. Furthermore, we discuss the relationship between the metabolism of microbes and their potential applications, which may serve as a new approach for the diagnosis and treatment of GC.

The gut dysbiosis-cancer axis: illuminating novel insights and implications for clinical practice

The human intestinal microbiota, also known as the gut microbiota, comprises more than 100 trillion organisms, mainly bacteria. This number exceeds the host body cells by a factor of ten. The gastrointestinal tract, which houses 60%-80% of the host's immune cells, is one of the largest immune organs. It maintains systemic immune homeostasis in the face of constant bacterial challenges. The gut microbiota has evolved with the host, and its symbiotic state with the host's gut epithelium is a testament to this co-evolution. However, certain microbial subpopulations may expand during pathological interventions, disrupting the delicate species-level microbial equilibrium and triggering inflammation and tumorigenesis. This review highlights the impact of gut microbiota dysbiosis on the development and progression of certain types of cancers and discusses the potential for developing new therapeutic strategies against cancer by manipulating the gut microbiota. By interacting with the host microbiota, we may be able to enhance the effectiveness of anticancer therapies and open new avenues for improving patient outcomes.

How the interplay among the tumor microenvironment and the gut microbiota influences the stemness of colorectal cancer cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains the third most prevalent cancer disease and involves a multi-step process in which intestinal cells acquire malignant characteristics. It is well established that the appearance of distal metastasis in CRC patients is the cause of a poor prognosis and treatment failure. Nevertheless, in the last decades, CRC aggressiveness and progression have been attributed to a specific cell population called CRC stem cells (CCSC) with features like tumor initiation capacity, self-renewal capacity, and acquired multidrug resistance. Emerging data highlight the concept of this cell subtype as a plastic entity that has a dynamic status and can be originated from different types of cells through genetic and epigenetic changes. These alterations are modulated by complex and dynamic crosstalk with environmental factors by paracrine signaling. It is known that in the tumor niche, different cell types, structures, and biomolecules coexist and interact with cancer cells favoring cancer growth and development. Together, these components constitute the tumor microenvironment (TME). Most recently, researchers have also deepened the influence of the complex variety of microorganisms that inhabit the intestinal mucosa, collectively known as gut microbiota, on CRC. Both TME and microorganisms participate in inflammatory processes that can drive the initiation and evolution of CRC. Since in the last decade, crucial advances have been made concerning to the synergistic interaction among the TME and gut microorganisms that condition the identity of CCSC, the data exposed in this review could provide valuable insights into the biology of CRC and the development of new targeted therapies.

A Review of Gut Microbiota-Derived Metabolites in Tumor Progression and Cancer Therapy

Gut microbiota-derived metabolites are key hubs connecting the gut microbiome and cancer progression, primarily by remodeling the tumor microenvironment and regulating key signaling pathways in cancer cells and multiple immune cells. The use of microbial metabolites in radiotherapy and chemotherapy mitigates the severe side effects from treatment and improves the efficacy of treatment. Immunotherapy combined with microbial metabolites effectively activates the immune system to kill tumors and overcomes drug resistance. Consequently, various novel strategies have been developed to modulate microbial metabolites. Manipulation of genes involved in microbial metabolism using synthetic biology approaches directly affects levels of microbial metabolites, while fecal microbial transplantation and phage strategies affect levels of microbial metabolites by altering the composition of the microbiome. However, some microbial metabolites harbor paradoxical functions depending on the context (e.g., type of cancer). Furthermore, the metabolic effects of microorganisms on certain anticancer drugs such as irinotecan and gemcitabine, render the drugs ineffective or exacerbate their adverse effects. Therefore, a personalized and comprehensive consideration of the patient's condition is required when employing microbial metabolites to treat cancer. The purpose of this review is to summarize the correlation between gut microbiota-derived metabolites and cancer, and to provide fresh ideas for future scientific research.

The Diet as a Modulator of Tumor Microenvironment in Colorectal Cancer Patients

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers in Western countries and remains the second most common cause of cancer death worldwide. Many studies show the importance of diet and lifestyle in the incidence of CRC, as well as in CRC prevention. However, this review summarizes those studies that analyze the impact of nutrition on tumor microenvironment modulation and cancer progression. We review the available information about the effects of specific nutrients on cancer cell progression and on the different cells within the tumor microenvironment. Diet and nutritional status in the clinical management of colorectal cancer patients are also analyzed. Finally, future perspectives and challenges are discussed, with a view to improving CRC treatments by employing nutritional approaches. These promise great benefits and will eventually improve CRC patients' survival.

The Efficacy of Tumor Mutation Burden as a Biomarker of Response to Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world; therefore, extensive research has been dedicated to exploring potential therapeutics, including immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Initially, programmed-death ligand-1 was the biomarker utilized to predict the efficacy of ICIs. However, its heterogeneous expression in the tumor microenvironment, which is critical to cancer progression, promoted the exploration of the tumor mutation burden (TMB). Research in various cancers, such as melanoma and lung cancer, has shown an association between high TMB and response to ICIs, increasing its predictive value. However, the TMB has failed to predict ICI response in numerous other cancers. Therefore, future research is needed to analyze the variations between cancer types and establish TMB cutoffs in order to create a more standardized methodology for using the TMB clinically. In this review, we aim to explore current research on the efficacy of the TMB as a biomarker, discuss current approaches to overcoming immunoresistance to ICIs, and highlight new trends in the field such as liquid biopsies, next generation sequencing, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, and personalized tumor vaccines.

Cancer Resistance to Immunotherapy: Comprehensive Insights with Future Perspectives

Cancer immunotherapy is a type of treatment that harnesses the power of the immune systems of patients to target cancer cells with better precision compared to traditional chemotherapy. Several lines of treatment have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and have led to remarkable success in the treatment of solid tumors, such as melanoma and small-cell lung cancer. These immunotherapies include checkpoint inhibitors, cytokines, and vaccines, while the chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell treatment has shown better responses in hematological malignancies. Despite these breakthrough achievements, the response to treatment has been variable among patients, and only a small percentage of cancer patients gained from this treatment, depending on the histological type of tumor and other host factors. Cancer cells develop mechanisms to avoid interacting with immune cells in these circumstances, which has an adverse effect on how effectively they react to therapy. These mechanisms arise either due to intrinsic factors within cancer cells or due other cells within the tumor microenvironment (TME). When this scenario is used in a therapeutic setting, the term “resistance to immunotherapy” is applied; “primary resistance” denotes a failure to respond to treatment from the start, and “secondary resistance” denotes a relapse following the initial response to immunotherapy. Here, we provide a thorough summary of the internal and external mechanisms underlying tumor resistance to immunotherapy. Furthermore, a variety of immunotherapies are briefly discussed, along with recent developments that have been employed to prevent relapses following treatment, with a focus on upcoming initiatives to improve the efficacy of immunotherapy for cancer patients.

The Role of the Gut Microbiome in Cancer Immunotherapy: Current Knowledge and Future Directions

Cancer immunotherapy is a treatment modality that aims to stimulate the anti-tumor immunity of the host to elicit favorable clinical outcomes. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) gained traction due to the lasting effects and better tolerance in patients carrying solid tumors in comparison to conventional treatment. However, a significant portion of patients may present primary or acquired resistance (non-responders), and thus, they may have limited therapeutic outcomes. Resistance to ICIs can be derived from host-related, tumor-intrinsic, or environmental factors. Recent studies suggest a correlation of gut microbiota with resistance and response to immunotherapy as well as with the incidence of adverse events. Currently, preclinical and clinical studies aim to elucidate the unique microbial signatures related to ICI response and anti-tumor immunity, employing metagenomics and/or multi-omics. Decoding this complex relationship can provide the basis for manipulating the malleable structure of the gut microbiota to enhance therapeutic success. Here, we delve into the factors affecting resistance to ICIs, focusing on the intricate gut microbiome–immunity interplay. Additionally, we review clinical studies and discuss future trends and directions in this promising field.

Extracellular matrix remodeling in tumor progression and immune escape: from mechanisms to treatments

The malignant tumor is a multi-etiological, systemic and complex disease characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation and distant metastasis. Anticancer treatments including adjuvant therapies and targeted therapies are effective in eliminating cancer cells but in a limited number of patients. Increasing evidence suggests that the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important role in tumor development through changes in macromolecule components, degradation enzymes and stiffness. These variations are under the control of cellular components in tumor tissue via the aberrant activation of signaling pathways, the interaction of the ECM components to multiple surface receptors, and mechanical impact. Additionally, the ECM shaped by cancer regulates immune cells which results in an immune suppressive microenvironment and hinders the efficacy of immunotherapies. Thus, the ECM acts as a barrier to protect cancer from treatments and supports tumor progression. Nevertheless, the profound regulatory network of the ECM remodeling hampers the design of individualized antitumor treatment. Here, we elaborate on the composition of the malignant ECM, and discuss the specific mechanisms of the ECM remodeling. Precisely, we highlight the impact of the ECM remodeling on tumor development, including proliferation, anoikis, metastasis, angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and immune escape. Finally, we emphasize ECM "normalization" as a potential strategy for anti-malignant treatment.

Modulation of the Tumor Microenvironment by Microbiota-Derived Short-Chain Fatty Acids: Impact in Colorectal Cancer Therapy

Finding new therapeutic approaches towards colorectal cancer (CRC) is of increased relevance, as CRC is one of the most common cancers worldwide. CRC standard therapy includes surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, which may be used alone or in combination. The reported side effects and acquired resistance associated with these strategies lead to an increasing need to search for new therapies with better efficacy and less toxicity. Several studies have demonstrated the antitumorigenic properties of microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The tumor microenvironment is composed by non-cellular components, microbiota, and a great diversity of cells, such as immune cells. The influence of SCFAs on the different constituents of the tumor microenvironment is an important issue that should be taken into consideration, and to the best of our knowledge there is a lack of reviews on this subject. The tumor microenvironment is not only closely related to the growth and development of CRC but also affects the treatment and prognosis of the patients. Immunotherapy has emerged as a new hope, but, in CRC, it was found that only a small percentage of patients benefit from this treatment being closely dependent on the genetic background of the tumors. The aim of this review was to perform an up-to-date critical literature review on current knowledge regarding the effects of microbiota-derived SCFAs in the tumor microenvironment, particularly in the context of CRC and its impact in CRC therapeutic strategies. SCFAs, namely acetate, butyrate, and propionate, have the ability to modulate the tumor microenvironment in distinct ways. SCFAs promote immune cell differentiation, downregulate the expression of pro-inflammatory mediators, and restrict the tumor-induced angiogenesis. SCFAs also sustain the integrity of basement membranes and modulate the intestinal pH. CRC patients have lower concentrations of SCFAs than healthy individuals. Increasing the production of SCFAs through the manipulation of the gut microbiota could constitute an important therapeutic strategy towards CRC due to their antitumorigenic effect and ability of modulating tumor microenvironment.

Mucosal-associated invariant T cells for cancer immunotherapy

Human mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are characterized by their expression of an invariant TCR α chain Vα7.2-Jα33/Jα20/Jα12 paired with a restricted TCR β chain. MAIT cells recognize microbial peptides presented by the highly conserved MHC class I-like molecule MR1 and bridge the innate and acquired immune systems to mediate augmented immune responses. Upon activation, MAIT cells rapidly proliferate, produce a variety of cytokines and cytotoxic molecules, and trigger efficient antitumor immunity. Administration of a representative MAIT cell ligand 5-OP-RU effectively activates MAIT cells and enhances their antitumor capacity. In this review, we introduce MAIT cell biology and their importance in antitumor immunity, summarize the current development of peripheral blood mononuclear cell-derived and stem cell-derived MAIT cell products for cancer treatment, and discuss the potential of genetic engineering of MAIT cells for off-the-shelf cancer immunotherapy.

A New Treatment Landscape for RCC: Association of the Human Microbiome with Improved Outcomes in RCC

Microbes play different roles in metabolism, local or systemic inflammation, and immunity, and the human microbiome in tumor microenvironment (TME) is important for modulating the response to immunotherapy in cancer patients. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is an immunogenic tumor, and immunotherapy is the backbone of its treatment. Correlations between the microbiome and responsiveness to immune checkpoint inhibitors have been reported. This review summarizes the recent therapeutic strategies for RCC and the effects of TME on the systemic therapy of RCC. The current understanding and advances in microbiome research and the relationship between the microbiome and the response to immunotherapy for RCC are also discussed. Improving our understanding of the role of the microbiome in RCC treatment will facilitate the development of microbiome targeting therapies to modify the tumor microbiome and improve treatment outcomes.

The Microbiome-TIME Axis: A Host of Possibilities

Cancer continues to be a significant source of mortality and morbidity worldwide despite progress in cancer prevention, early detection, and treatment. Fortunately, immunotherapy has been a breakthrough in the treatment of many cancers. However, the response to immunotherapy treatment and the experience of associated side effects varies significantly between patients. Recently, attention has been given to understanding the role of the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) in the development, progression, and treatment response of cancer. A new understanding of the role of the microbiota in the modulation of the TIME has further complicated the story but also unlocked a new area of adjuvant therapeutic research. The complex balance of tumor-permissive and tumor-suppressive immune environments requires further elucidation in order to be harnessed as a therapeutic target. Because both the TIME and the microbiome show importance in these areas, we propose here the concept of the "microbiome-TIME axis" to review the current field of research and future directions.

Exploring the immunomodulatory effects and mechanisms of Xinjiang fermented camel milk-derived bioactive peptides based on network pharmacology and molecular docking

Purpose: Fermented camel milk from Xinjiang is rich in probiotics and has immunomodulatory effects as an important source of bioactive peptides. However, it is not clear whether it is the probiotic or the bioactive peptide that acts. The present study aimed to extract and identify bioactive peptides from fermented camel milk in Xinjiang and investigate their immunomodulatory effects and mechanisms based on network pharmacology and molecular docking. Methods: Four probiotic bacteria were used to ferment the fresh camel milk and the bioactive peptides were extracted and isolated by ultrafiltration and column chromatography. Network pharmacology predicts targets and pathways of action. GeneCards and OMIM-GENE-MAP database were used in order to search disease target genes and screen common target genes. Then we used STRING web to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) interaction network of the common target protein. The key targets were analyzed by GO (Gene Ontology) and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) analysis through the David database. The "drug (bioactive peptide)-disease-targets-pathway" network was established and molecular docking was used for prediction. Results: Two fractions were obtained by UV spectrophotometer; whey acidic protein, α-lactalbumin, and peptidoglycan recognition protein 1 were the main protein-like components of Xinjiang fermented camel milk-derived bioactive peptides. The repeat sequence of peptidoglycan recognition protein 1 was selected and then seven bioactive peptides were obtained. Bioactive peptides had 222 gene targets, anti-inflammatory diseases had 2598 gene targets, and immune regulation had 866 gene targets, the intersection of which was 66 in common gene targets. Gene ontology and KEGG analysis reveals that bioactive peptides mainly play a vital role in the signaling pathways of lipid and atherosclerosis, pathways in cancer. The molecular docking results showed that the seven bioactive peptides bound well to the top four scoring proteins. Conclusion: The immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of Xinjiang fermented camel milk-derived bioactive peptides were initially investigated by network pharmacology and molecular docking, providing a scientific basis for future studies.

Interaction of gut microbiota with the tumor microenvironment: A new strategy for antitumor treatment and traditional Chinese medicine in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide and the second leading cause of cancer-related death. In recent years, the relationship between gut microbiota and CRC has attracted increasing attention from researchers. Studies reported that changes in the composition of gut microbiota, such as increase in the number of Fusobacterium nucleatum and Helicobacter hepaticus, impair the immune surveillance by affecting the intestinal mucosal immunity and increase the risk of tumor initiation and progression. The tumor microenvironment is the soil for tumor survival. Close contacts between gut microbiota and the tumor microenvironment may directly affect the progression of tumors and efficacy of antitumor drugs, thus influencing the prognosis of patients with CRC. Recently, many studies have shown that traditional Chinese medicine can safely and effectively improve the efficacy of antitumor drugs, potentially through remodeling of the tumor microenvironment by regulated gut microbiota. This article describes the effect of gut microbiota on the tumor microenvironment and possible mechanisms concerning the initiation and progression of CRC, and summarizes the potential role of traditional Chinese medicine.

Gut microbiota, an emergent target to shape the efficiency of cancer therapy

It is now well-acknowledged that microbiota has a profound influence on both human health and illness. The gut microbiota has recently come to light as a crucial element that influences cancer through a variety of mechanisms. The connections between the microbiome and cancer therapy are further highlighted by a number of preclinical and clinical evidence, suggesting that these complicated interactions may vary by cancer type, treatment, or even by tumor stage. The paradoxical relationship between gut microbiota and cancer therapies is that in some cancers, the gut microbiota may be necessary to maintain therapeutic efficacy, whereas, in other cancers, gut microbiota depletion significantly increases efficacy. Actually, mounting research has shown that the gut microbiota plays a crucial role in regulating the host immune response and boosting the efficacy of anticancer medications like chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Therefore, gut microbiota modulation, which aims to restore gut microbial balance, is a viable technique for cancer prevention and therapy given the expanding understanding of how the gut microbiome regulates treatment response and contributes to carcinogenesis. This review will provide an outline of the gut microbiota's role in health and disease, along with a summary of the most recent research on how it may influence the effectiveness of various anticancer medicines and affect the growth of cancer. This study will next cover the newly developed microbiota-targeting strategies including prebiotics, probiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) to enhance anticancer therapy effectiveness, given its significance.

The Microbiome's Influence on Head and Neck Cancers

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Head and neck tumors (HNC) rank sixth among cancers worldwide. Due to their late diagnosis and poor prognosis, they are a clinical challenge. However, recent years have seen a dynamic development of science on the microbiome. The aim of the study is to discuss the role of the microbiome in HNC, the impact of the microbiome on oncogenesis, the course of the disease, as well as on treatment, and its toxicity.

RECENT FINDINGS

The microbiome's influence on oncogenesis, the course of the disease, and the effectiveness of oncological treatment have been confirmed in cancers of the colon, pancreas, lungs, and prostate. There is no solid literature on HNC. Many studies indicate disruption of the oral microbiome and periodontal disease as potential cancer risk factors. Disruption of the microbiome increases radiotherapy's toxicity, intensifying radiation reactions. The microbiome plays an important role in cancer. It is a new target in research into new therapies. It may also be a prognostic marker of cancer development. Changes in the composition of the microbiome modulate the effectiveness of oncological treatment. More research is needed on the microbiome and its effects on HNC.

Pharmacomicrobiomics in Anticancer Therapies: Why the Gut Microbiota Should Be Pointed Out

Anticancer treatments have shown a variable therapeutic outcome that may be partly attributable to the activity of the gut microbiota on the pathology and/or therapies. In recent years, microbiota-drug interactions have been extensively investigated, but most of the underlying molecular mechanisms still remain unclear. In this review, we discuss the relationship between the gut microbiota and some of the most commonly used drugs in oncological diseases. Different strategies for manipulating the gut microbiota layout (i.e., prebiotics, probiotics, antibiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation) are then explored in order to optimize clinical outcomes in cancer patients. Anticancer technologies that exploit tumor-associated bacteria to target tumors and biotransform drugs are also briefly discussed. In the field of pharmacomicrobiomics, multi-omics strategies coupled with machine and deep learning are urgently needed to bring to light the interaction among gut microbiota, drugs, and host for the development of truly personalized precision therapies.

Gut microbiome in multiple myeloma: Mechanisms of progression and clinical applications

The gut commensal microbes modulate human immunity and metabolism through the production of a large number of metabolites, which act as signaling molecules and substrates of metabolic reactions in a diverse range of biological processes. There is a growing appreciation for the importance of immunometabolic mechanisms of the host-gut microbiota interactions in various malignant tumors. Emerging studies have suggested intestinal microbiota contributes to the progression of multiple myeloma. In this review, we summarized the current understanding of the gut microbiome in MM progression and treatment, and the influence of alterations in gut microbiota on treatment response and treatment-related toxicity and complications in MM patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Furthermore, we discussed the impact of gut microbiota-immune system interactions in tumor immunotherapy, focusing on tumor vaccine immunotherapy, which may be an effective approach to improve anti-myeloma efficacy.

Microbiota in a long survival discourse with the human host

The relationship between human health and gut microbiota is becoming more apparent. It is now widely believed that healthy gut flora plays a vital role in the overall well-being of the individual. There are spatial and temporal variations in the distribution of microbes from the esophagus to the rectum throughout an individual's lifetime. Through the development of genome sequencing technologies, scientists have been able to study the interactions between different microorganisms and their hosts to improve the health and disease of individuals. The normal gut microbiota provides various functions to the host, whereas the host, in turn, provides nutrients and promotes the development of healthy and resilient microbiota communities. Thus, the microbiota provides and maintains the gut's structural integrity and protects the gut against pathogens. The development of the normal gut microbiota is influenced by various factors. Some of these include the mode of delivery, diet, and antibiotics. In addition, the environment can also affect the development of the gut microbiota. For example, one of the main concerns of antibiotic use is the alteration of the gut microbiota, which could lead to the development of multidrug-resistant organisms. When microbes are disturbed, it can potentially lead to various diseases. Depending on the species' ability to adapt to the human body's environment, the fate of the microbes in the host and their relationship with the human body are decided. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of microbe, microbes-host immune interactions, and factors that can disturb their interactions.

Genetic mutation and tumor microbiota determine heterogenicity of tumor immune signature: Evidence from gastric and colorectal synchronous cancers

Both colorectal and gastric cancer are lethal solid-tumor malignancies, leading to the majority of cancer-associated deaths worldwide. Although colorectal cancer (CRC) and gastric cancer (GC) share many similarities, the prognosis and drug response of CRC and GC are different. However, determinants for such differences have not been elucidated. To avoid genetic background variance, we performed multi-omics analysis, including single-cell RNA sequencing, whole-exome sequencing, and microbiome sequencing, to dissect the tumor immune signature of synchronous primary tumors of GC and CRC. We found that cellular components of juxta-tumoral sites were quite similar, while tumoral cellular components were specific to the tumoral sites. In addition, the mutational landscape and microbiome contributed to the distinct TME cellular components. Overall, we found that different prognoses and drug responses of GC and CRC were mainly due to the distinct TME determined by mutational landscape and microbiome components.

A novel ten-gene prognostic signature for cervical cancer based on CD79B-related immunomodulators

The identification of immune-related prognostic biomarkers opens up the possibility of developing new immunotherapy strategies against tumors. In this study, we investigated immune-related biomarkers in the tumor microenvironment to predict the prognosis of cervical cancer (CC) patients. ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms were used to calculate the abundance of tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TICs) and the amount of immune and stromal components in cervical samples (n = 309) from The Cancer Genome Atlas. Ten immune-related differentially expressed genes associated with CC survival were identified via intersection analyses of multivariate Cox regression and protein-protein interactions. CD79B was chosen for further study, and its prognostic value and role in anti-CC immune functions were analyzed. Differential expression analysis and qRT-PCR validation both revealed that CD79B expression was down-regulated in CC tissues. Survival analysis suggested that a high level of CD79B expression was associated with good prognosis. In the clinical correlation analysis, CD79B expression was found to be related to primary therapy outcome, race, histological type, degree of cell differentiation, disease-specific survival, and progression-free interval. GSEA showed that the function and pathway of CD79B were mainly related to immune activities. Meanwhile, CD79B expression was correlated with 10 types of TICs. Based on CD79B-associated immunomodulators, a novel immune prognostic signature consisting of 10 genes (CD96, LAG3, PDCD1, TIGIT, CD27, KLRK1, LTA, PVR, TNFRSF13C, and TNFRSF17) was established and validated as possessing good independent prognostic value for CC patients. Finally, a nomogram to predict personalized 3- and 5-year overall survival probabilities in CC patients was built and validated. In summary, our findings demonstrated that CD79B might be a potential prognostic biomarker for CC. The 10-gene prognostic signature independently predicted the overall survival of patients with CC, which could improve individualized treatment and aid clinical decision-making.

Onco-biome in pharmacotherapy for lung cancer: a narrative review

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The gut microbiota (GM) was recently recognized to play an important role in modulating systemic immune responses and is known to influence the effects or adverse events of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) or carcinogenesis by crosstalk with regulators of cancer-related immunity, and this relationship is complex and multifactorial. Diversity in the gut microbiome and the abundance of specific bacterial species have been identified to be associated with better response and prognosis. Therefore, the purpose of the current interest in the gut microbiome is to enable modulation of the immune system in donor cancer patients by the administration of specific bacterial species and enabling their dominance. To understand this "terra incognita" is to uncover the role of the mechanisms underlying unknown organ functions, and this knowledge will lead to enhanced immunotherapy for lung cancer patients.

METHODS

In this article, we summarized the literature on the relationship between the microbiome and lung cancer and the potential of the microbiome as a therapeutic target.

KEY CONTENT AND FINDINGS

This article is organized into the following sections: introduction, methods, microbiota and cancer development, microbiota and lung cancer treatment, future directions, and conclusion.

CONCLUSIONS

The gut microbiome is currently becoming the hallmark of cancer research and has an established and critical role in regulating antitumor immunity and the response to ICB in patients with lung cancers.

Regulation of autophagy fires up the cold tumor microenvironment to improve cancer immunotherapy

Immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, have revolutionized the treatment of patients with advanced and metastatic tumors resistant to traditional therapies. However, the immunosuppressed tumor microenvironment (TME) results in a weak response to immunotherapy. Therefore, to realize the full potential of immunotherapy and obstacle barriers, it is essential to explore how to convert cold TME to hot TME. Autophagy is a crucial cellular process that preserves cellular stability in the cellular components of the TME, contributing to the characterization of the immunosuppressive TME. Targeted autophagy ignites immunosuppressive TME by influencing antigen release, antigen presentation, antigen recognition, and immune cell trafficking, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy and overcoming resistance to immunotherapy. In this review, we summarize the characteristics and components of TME, explore the mechanisms and functions of autophagy in the characterization and regulation of TME, and discuss autophagy-based therapies as adjuvant enhancers of immunotherapy to improve the effectiveness of immunotherapy.

Murine fecal microbiota transfer models selectively colonize human microbes and reveal transcriptional programs associated with response to neoadjuvant checkpoint inhibitors

Human gut microbial species found to associate with clinical responses to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are often tested in mice using fecal microbiota transfer (FMT), wherein tumor responses in recipient mice may recapitulate human responses to ICI treatment. However, many FMT studies have reported only limited methodological description, details of murine cohorts, and statistical methods. To investigate the reproducibility and robustness of gut microbial species that impact ICI responses, we performed human to germ-free mouse FMT using fecal samples from patients with non-small cell lung cancer who had a pathological response or nonresponse after neoadjuvant ICI treatment. R-FMT mice yielded greater anti-tumor responses in combination with anti-PD-L1 treatment compared to NR-FMT, although the magnitude varied depending on mouse cell line, sex, and individual experiment. Detailed investigation of post-FMT mouse microbiota using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, with models to classify and correct for biological variables, revealed a shared presence of the most highly abundant taxa between the human inocula and mice, though low abundance human taxa colonized mice more variably after FMT. Multiple Clostridium species also correlated with tumor outcome in individual anti-PD-L1-treated R-FMT mice. RNAseq analysis revealed differential expression of T and NK cell-related pathways in responding tumors, irrespective of FMT source, with enrichment of these cell types confirmed by immunohistochemistry. This study identifies several human gut microbial species that may play a role in clinical responses to ICIs and suggests attention to biological variables is needed to improve reproducibility and limit variability across experimental murine cohorts.

Comparison of tumor-associated and nontumor-associated esophageal mucosa microbiota in patients with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Esophageal microbiota plays important roles in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). The aims of this study were to clarify the changes in the bacterial community during ESCC development and identify latent pathogenic bacteria which may contribute to esophageal carcinogenesis and progression. Fresh tumor and nontumor esophageal mucosal samples were collected from 31 men with ESCC. High-throughput 16s rRNA sequencing was performed, and the operational taxonomic unit data and bacterial classification annotation were obtained and analyzed. The Ace, Chao, Shannon, Simpson indexes, and operational taxonomic unit numbers were higher in nontumor tissues than in tumor tissues, although without statistical significance. There were 4 phyla and 28 genera found to show significant differences between tumor and nontumor samples. The general probiotic Lactobacillus was 1.98-fold higher in nontumor tissues, while the general pathogenic genera Fusobacterium was 4.35-fold higher in tumor tissues. For tumor tissue samples, the genera Treponema and Brevibacillus were significantly higher in N1 and N2 stages, respectively, and Acinetobacter was significantly higher in T3 stage. For nontumor tissues, the genus Fusicatenibacter was significantly higher in T2 stage, and Corynebacterium, Aggregatibacter, Saccharimonadaceae-TM7x, and Cupriavidus were significantly higher in T4 stage. Additionally, bacteria related to nitrotoluene degradation were enriched in nontumor tissues, while bacteria related to base excision repair were enriched in tumor tissues. The relative abundance of several phyla and genera are different between tumor and nontumor tissue samples. The altered bacterial microbiota is correlated with different tumor stages and some microbes may take part in the carcinogenesis and development of ESCC.

Implication of gut microbiome in immunotherapy for colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) constitutes the third most frequently reported malignancy in the male population and the second most common in women in the last two decades. Colon carcinogenesis is a complex, multifactorial event, resulting from genetic and epigenetic aberrations, the impact of environmental factors, as well as the disturbance of the gut microbial ecosystem. The relationship between the intestinal microbiome and carcinogenesis was relatively undervalued in the last decade. However, its remarkable effect on metabolic and immune functions on the host has been in the spotlight as of recent years. There is a strong relationship between gut microbiome dysbiosis, bowel pathogenicity and responsiveness to anti-cancer treatment; including immunotherapy. Modifications of bacteriome consistency are closely associated with the immunologic response to immunotherapeutic agents. This condition that implies the necessity of gut microbiome manipulation. Thus, creatingan optimal response for CRC patients to immunotherapeutic agents. In this paper, we will review the current literature observing how gut microbiota influence the response of immunotherapy on CRC patients.

Relationships among microbiota, gastric cancer, and immunotherapy

Currently, conventional neoadjuvant therapy or postoperative adjuvant therapy, such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy, can only bring limited survival benefits to gastric cancer (GC). Median survival after palliative chemotherapy is also low, at about 8–10 months. Immunotargeting is a new option for the treatment of GC, but has not been widely replicated. The highly immunosuppressed tumor microenvironment (TME) discounts the efficacy of immunotherapy for GC. Therefore, new strategies are needed to enhance the immune response of the TME. This paper reviewed the relationship between microorganisms and GC, potential links between microorganisms and immunotherapy and research of microorganisms combined immunotherapy.

Integrated Analysis of C16orf54 as a Potential Prognostic, Diagnostic, and Immune Marker across Pan-Cancer

Chromosome 16 open reading frame 54 (C16orf54) is a protein coding gene, showing a biased expression in the bone marrow, lymph node, and 11 other tissues. Reports on the function of C16orf54 in the onset and development of tumours remain scarce. Clinical information and tumour expression profile data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE), and Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) were utilized to determine the relationship between C16orf54 expression and prognosis, diagnosis, immune microenvironment, heterogeneity, and stemness across pan-cancer. The findings ascertained that C16orf54 was expressed at a low level in most cancers. Furthermore, C16orf54 could distinguish between cancer and normal tissues with high accuracy in most cancers, and the prognostic significance of low C16orf54 mRNA levels differs across cancers. C16orf54 expression was positively linked to the stromal, immune, and ESTIMATE scores. On the other hand, C16orf54 was reported to be negatively correlated with tumour purity in most cancers. Further, C16orf54 expression was positively correlated with immune cell infiltration and the expression of immune regulatory genes, including chemokines, receptors, major histocompatibility complexes, immune inhibitory, and immune stimulatory genes, in most cancers. Additionally, C16orf54 expression was significantly associated with tumour heterogeneity indicators, such as tumour mutation burden (TMB) and microsatellite instability (MSI), and was significantly correlated with DNAss and RNAss tumour stemness indicators. Moreover, Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis, as well as Gene Set Enrichment analysis (GSEA), revealed that C16orf54 expression was closely linked to the signalling pathways of immune cells and factors. The integrated analysis of C16orf54 indicates it as a potential prognostic, diagnostic, and immune marker, which could be adopted as a novel target for adjuvant immunotherapy across pan-cancer.

Microbiome in cancer: An exploration of carcinogenesis, immune responses and immunotherapy

Cancer is a major disease endangering human health. More and more studies have shown that microorganisms play an extremely important role in the occurrence, development and treatment of tumors. As a very promising tumor treatment strategy, immunotherapy has also been proved to have a great relationship with microorganisms. Here, the authors review the contribution of the microbiota to cancer and the research on its impact on cancer immunotherapy. We also highlight the possible mechanism of their interaction and outlined the potential application of microbiota in tumor immunotherapy.

Current understanding of the human microbiome in glioma

There is mounting evidence that the human microbiome is highly associated with a wide variety of central nervous system diseases. However, the link between the human microbiome and glioma is rarely noticed. The exact mechanism of microbiota to affect glioma remains unclear. Recent studies have demonstrated that the microbiome may affect the development, progress, and therapy of gliomas, including the direct impacts of the intratumoral microbiome and its metabolites, and the indirect effects of the gut microbiome and its metabolites. Glioma-related microbiome (gut microbiome and intratumoral microbiome) is associated with both tumor microenvironment and tumor immune microenvironment, which ultimately influence tumorigenesis, progression, and responses to treatment. In this review, we briefly summarize current knowledge regarding the role of the glioma-related microbiome, focusing on its gut microbiome fraction and a brief description of the intratumoral microbiome, and put forward the prospects in which microbiome can be applied in the future and some challenges still need to be solved.

Local Breast Microbiota: A "New" Player on the Block

Simple Summary

Microbiota plays a fundamental role in the induction, training and function of the human immune system. The interactions between microbiota and immune cells have consequences in several settings, namely in carcinogenesis but also in anticancer activity. Immunotherapy, already widely used in the treatment of several solid cancers, modulates the action of the immune system, promoting antitumour effects. Recently, there has been a growing interest in studying the microbiota composition as a possible modulator of the tumour microenvironment and consequently of the response to certain therapies such as immunotherapy.

Abstract

The tumour microenvironment (TME) comprises a complex ecosystem of different cell types, including immune cells, cells of the vasculature and lymphatic system, cancer-associated fibroblasts, pericytes, and adipocytes. Cancer proliferation, invasion, metastasis, drug resistance and immune escape are all influenced by the dynamic interaction between cancer cells and TME. Microbes, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, archaea and protists, found within tumour tissues, constitute the intratumour microbiota, which is tumour type-specific and distinct among patients with different clinical outcomes. Growing evidence reveals a significant relevance of local microbiota in the colon, liver, breast, lung, oral cavity and pancreas carcinogenesis. Moreover, there is a growing interest in the tumour immune microenvironment (TIME) pointed out in several cross-sectional studies on the correlation between microbiota and TME. It is now known that microorganisms have the capacity to change the density and function of anticancer and suppressive immune cells, enabling the promotion of an inflammatory environment. As immunotherapy (such as immune checkpoint inhibitors) is becoming a promising therapy using TIME as a therapeutic target, the analysis and comprehension of local microbiota and its modulating strategies can help improve cancer treatments.

Tumor microbiome metabolism: A game changer in cancer development and therapy

Accumulating recent evidence indicates that the human microbiome plays essential roles in pathophysiological states, including cancer. The tumor microbiome, an emerging concept that has not yet been clearly defined, has been proven to influence both cancer development and therapy through complex mechanisms. Small molecule metabolites produced by the tumor microbiome through unique biosynthetic pathways can easily diffuse into tissues and penetrate cell membranes through transporters or free diffusion, thus remodeling the signaling pathways of cancer and immune cells by interacting with biomacromolecules. Targeting tumor microbiome metabolism could offer a novel perspective for not only understanding cancer progression but also developing new strategies for the treatment of multiple cancer types. Here, we summarize recent advances regarding the role the tumor microbiome plays as a game changer in cancer biology. Specifically, the metabolites produced by the tumor microbiome and their potential effects on the cancer development therapy are discussed to understand the importance of the microbial metabolism in the tumor microenvironment. Finally, new anticancer therapeutic strategies that target tumor microbiome metabolism are reviewed and proposed to provide new insights in clinical applications.

Novel directions of precision oncology: circulating microbial DNA emerging in cancer-microbiome areas

Microbiome research has extended into the cancer area in the past decades. Microbes can affect oncogenesis, progression, and treatment response through various mechanisms, including direct regulation and indirect impacts. Microbiota-associated detection methods and agents have been developed to facilitate cancer diagnosis and therapy. Additionally, the cancer microbiome has recently been redefined. The identification of intra-tumoral microbes and cancer-related circulating microbial DNA (cmDNA) has promoted novel research in the cancer-microbiome area. In this review, we define the human system of commensal microbes and the cancer microbiome from a brand-new perspective and emphasize the potential value of cmDNA as a promising biomarker in cancer liquid biopsy. We outline all existing studies on the relationship between cmDNA and cancer and the outlook for potential preclinical and clinical applications of cmDNA in cancer precision medicine, as well as critical problems to be overcome in this burgeoning field.