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Ye J, Suizu F, Yamakawa K, Mukai Y, Yoneyama H, Kondo J, Kato M, Nishiyama A, Yahagi N, Kadota K. Intra-tumoral administration of CHST15 siRNA remodels tumor microenvironment and augments tumor-infiltrating T cells in pancreatic cancer. MOLECULAR THERAPY. ONCOLOGY 2024; 32:200812. [PMID: 38799652 PMCID: PMC11127163 DOI: 10.1016/j.omton.2024.200812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
The dense stroma is one cause of poor efficacy of T cell-mediated immunotherapy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Carbohydrate sulfotransferase 15 (CHST15) is a proteoglycan-synthetic enzyme responsible for remodeling tumor stroma. Intra-tumoral injection of CHST15 small interfering RNA (siRNA) has been shown to increase the tumor-infiltrating T cells (TILs) in patients with unresectable PDAC. However, the mechanism underlying the enhanced accumulation of TILs is not fully explored. Here, we demonstrate that intra-tumoral injection of CHST15 siRNA locally and remotely diminishes myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and enhances TILs in mice. CHST15 was expressed by tumor cells and MDSCs in both tumor and tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs), and CHST15 siRNA repressed stromal density, neutrophil extracellular traps, and Ly6C/G+ MDSCs in vivo. Remarkably, tumor growth inhibition was only observed in the immunocompetent KPC model, which is associated with enhanced TILs. In vitro, CHST15 siRNA significantly downregulated the levels of CHST15 and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase mRNA in CD33+ MDSCs derived from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These results suggest a dual role for intra-tumorally injected CHST15 siRNA on modulating the tumor immune microenvironment for T cell entry and remotely diminishing CHST15+ MDSCs, decreasing T cell suppression and expanding T cells in the TDLN, ultimately leading to an enhanced accumulation of TILs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanjuan Ye
- Molecular Oncologic Pathology, Department of Pathology and Host-Defense, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-gun 761-0793, Kagawa, Japan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-gun, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan
| | - Futoshi Suizu
- Molecular Oncologic Pathology, Department of Pathology and Host-Defense, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-gun 761-0793, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Keiko Yamakawa
- Molecular Oncologic Pathology, Department of Pathology and Host-Defense, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-gun 761-0793, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Yuri Mukai
- Molecular Oncologic Pathology, Department of Pathology and Host-Defense, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-gun 761-0793, Kagawa, Japan
| | | | - Jiro Kondo
- Department of Materials and Life Sciences, Sophia University, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8554, Japan
| | - Motohiko Kato
- Center for Diagnostic and Therapeutic Endoscopy, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
| | - Akira Nishiyama
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-gun, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan
| | - Naohisa Yahagi
- Division of Research and Development for Minimally Invasive Treatment, Cancer Center, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
| | - Kyuichi Kadota
- Molecular Oncologic Pathology, Department of Pathology and Host-Defense, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Kita-gun 761-0793, Kagawa, Japan
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2
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Liu WS, Chen Z, Lu ZM, Dong JH, Wu JH, Gao J, Deng D, Li M. Multifunctional hydrogels based on photothermal therapy: A prospective platform for the postoperative management of melanoma. J Control Release 2024; 371:406-428. [PMID: 38849093 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Preventing the recurrence of melanoma after surgery and accelerating wound healing are among the most challenging aspects of melanoma management. Photothermal therapy has been widely used to treat tumors and bacterial infections and promote wound healing. Owing to its efficacy and specificity, it may be used for postoperative management of tumors. However, its use is limited by the uncontrollable distribution of photosensitizers and the likelihood of damage to the surrounding normal tissue. Hydrogels provide a moist environment with strong biocompatibility and adhesion for wound healing owing to their highly hydrophilic three-dimensional network structure. In addition, these materials serve as excellent drug carriers for tumor treatment and wound healing. It is possible to combine the advantages of both of these agents through different loading modalities to provide a powerful platform for the prevention of tumor recurrence and wound healing. This review summarizes the design strategies, research progress and mechanism of action of hydrogels used in photothermal therapy and discusses their role in preventing tumor recurrence and accelerating wound healing. These findings provide valuable insights into the postoperative management of melanoma and may guide the development of promising multifunctional hydrogels for photothermal therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Shang Liu
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, People's Republic of China
| | - Zheng-Mao Lu
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Shanghai Changhai Hospital, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin-Hua Dong
- Women and Children Hospital Affiliated to Jiaxing University, 2468 Middle Ring Eastern Road, Jiaxing City, Zhejiang 314000, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin-Hui Wu
- Ophthalmology Department of the Third Affiliated Hospital of Naval Medical University, Shanghai 201805, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jie Gao
- Changhai Clinical Research Unit, The First Affiliated Hospital of Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Nautical Medicine and Translation of Drugs and Medical Devices, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China.
| | - Dan Deng
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, People's Republic of China.
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Dermatology, Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200127, People's Republic of China.
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Buruiană A, Gheban BA, Gheban-Roșca IA, Georgiu C, Crișan D, Crișan M. The Tumor Stroma of Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Complex Environment That Fuels Cancer Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1727. [PMID: 38730679 PMCID: PMC11083853 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16091727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME), a complex assembly of cellular and extracellular matrix (ECM) components, plays a crucial role in driving tumor progression, shaping treatment responses, and influencing metastasis. This narrative review focuses on the cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) tumor stroma, highlighting its key constituents and their dynamic contributions. We examine how significant changes within the cSCC ECM-specifically, alterations in fibronectin, hyaluronic acid, laminins, proteoglycans, and collagens-promote cancer progression, metastasis, and drug resistance. The cellular composition of the cSCC TME is also explored, detailing the intricate interplay of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), endothelial cells, pericytes, adipocytes, and various immune cell populations. These diverse players modulate tumor development, angiogenesis, and immune responses. Finally, we emphasize the TME's potential as a therapeutic target. Emerging strategies discussed in this review include harnessing the immune system (adoptive cell transfer, checkpoint blockade), hindering tumor angiogenesis, disrupting CAF activity, and manipulating ECM components. These approaches underscore the vital role that deciphering TME interactions plays in advancing cSCC therapy. Further research illuminating these complex relationships will uncover new avenues for developing more effective treatments for cSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Buruiană
- Department of Pathology, Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.B.); (C.G.); (D.C.)
| | - Bogdan-Alexandru Gheban
- Department of Histology, Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
- Emergency Clinical County Hospital, 400347 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Ioana-Andreea Gheban-Roșca
- Department of Medical Informatics and Biostatistics, Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400129 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
| | - Carmen Georgiu
- Department of Pathology, Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.B.); (C.G.); (D.C.)
| | - Doința Crișan
- Department of Pathology, Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania; (A.B.); (C.G.); (D.C.)
| | - Maria Crișan
- Department of Histology, Iuliu Haţieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400012 Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
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Tang H, Chen L, Liu X, Zeng S, Tan H, Chen G. Pan-cancer dissection of vasculogenic mimicry characteristic to provide potential therapeutic targets. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1346719. [PMID: 38694917 PMCID: PMC11061449 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1346719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Vasculogenic mimicry (VM) represents a novel form of tumor angiogenesis that is associated with tumor invasiveness and drug resistance. However, the VM landscape across cancer types remains poorly understood. In this study, we elucidate the characterizations of VM across cancers based on multi-omics data and provide potential targeted therapeutic strategies. Methods Multi-omics data from The Cancer Genome Atlas was used to conduct comprehensive analyses of the characteristics of VM related genes (VRGs) across cancer types. Pan-cancer vasculogenic mimicry score was established to provide a depiction of the VM landscape across cancer types. The correlation between VM and cancer phenotypes was conducted to explore potential regulatory mechanisms of VM. We further systematically examined the relationship between VM and both tumor immunity and tumor microenvironment (TME). In addition, cell communication analysis based on single-cell transcriptome data was used to investigate the interactions between VM cells and TME. Finally, transcriptional and drug response data from the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer database were utilized to identify potential therapeutic targets and drugs. The impact of VM on immunotherapy was also further clarified. Results Our study revealed that VRGs were dysregulated in tumor and regulated by multiple mechanisms. Then, VM level was found to be heterogeneous among different tumors and correlated with tumor invasiveness, metastatic potential, malignancy, and prognosis. VM was found to be strongly associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Further analyses revealed cancer-associated fibroblasts can promote EMT and VM formation. Furthermore, the immune-suppressive state is associated with a microenvironment characterized by high levels of VM. VM score can be used as an indicator to predict the effect of immunotherapy. Finally, seven potential drugs targeting VM were identified. Conclusion In conclusion, we elucidate the characteristics and key regulatory mechanisms of VM across various cancer types, underscoring the pivotal role of CAFs in VM. VM was further found to be associated with the immunosuppressive TME. We also provide clues for the research of drugs targeting VM. Our study provides an initial overview and reference point for future research on VM, opening up new avenues for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibin Tang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Liuxun Chen
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xvdong Liu
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Shengjie Zeng
- Department of Urology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hao Tan
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Francescone R, Crawford HC, Vendramini-Costa DB. Rethinking the Roles of Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Pancreatic Cancer. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2024; 17:737-743. [PMID: 38316215 PMCID: PMC10966284 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2024.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Bearing a dismal 5-year survival rate, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a challenging disease that features a unique fibroinflammatory tumor microenvironment. As major components of the PDAC tumor microenvironment, cancer-associated fibroblasts are still poorly understood and their contribution to the several hallmarks of PDAC, such as resistance to therapies, immunosuppression, and high incidence of metastasis, is likely underestimated. There have been encouraging advances in the understanding of these fascinating cells, but many controversies remain, leaving the field still actively exploring the full scope of their contributions in PDAC progression. Here we pose several important considerations regarding PDAC cancer-associated fibroblast functions. We posit that transcriptomic analyses be interpreted with caution, when aiming to uncover the functional contributions of these cells. Moreover, we propose that normalizing these functions, rather than eliminating them, will provide the opportunity to enhance therapeutic response. Finally, we propose that cancer-associated fibroblasts should not be studied in isolation, but in conjunction with its extracellular matrix, because their respective functions are coordinated and concordant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph Francescone
- Department of Surgery, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan; Henry Ford Pancreatic Cancer Center, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Howard C Crawford
- Department of Surgery, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan; Henry Ford Pancreatic Cancer Center, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Debora Barbosa Vendramini-Costa
- Department of Surgery, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan; Henry Ford Pancreatic Cancer Center, Henry Ford Health, Detroit, Michigan.
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Kumar S, Acharya S, Karthikeyan M, Biswas P, Kumari S. Limitations and potential of immunotherapy in ovarian cancer. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1292166. [PMID: 38264664 PMCID: PMC10803592 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1292166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer (OC) is the third most common gynecological cancer and alone has an emergence rate of approximately 308,069 cases worldwide (2020) with dire survival rates. To put it into perspective, the mortality rate of OC is three times higher than that of breast cancer and it is predicted to only increase significantly by 2040. The primary reasons for such a high rate are that the physical symptoms of OC are detectable only during the advanced phase of the disease when resistance to chemotherapies is high and around 80% of the patients that do indeed respond to chemotherapy initially, show a poor prognosis subsequently. This highlights a pressing need to develop new and effective therapies to tackle advanced OC to improve prognosis and patient survival. A major advance in this direction is the emergence of combination immunotherapeutic methods to boost CD8+ T cell function to tackle OC. In this perspective, we discuss our view of the current state of some of the combination immunotherapies in the treatment of advanced OC, their limitations, and potential approaches toward a safer and more effective response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sudha Kumari
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
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Desai SA, Patel VP, Bhosle KP, Nagare SD, Thombare KC. The tumor microenvironment: shaping cancer progression and treatment response. J Chemother 2024:1-30. [PMID: 38179655 DOI: 10.1080/1120009x.2023.2300224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a crucial role in cancer progression and treatment response. It comprises a complex network of stromal cells, immune cells, extracellular matrix, and blood vessels, all of which interact with cancer cells and influence tumor behaviour. This review article provides an in-depth examination of the TME, focusing on stromal cells, blood vessels, signaling molecules, and ECM, along with commonly available therapeutic compounds that target these components. Moreover, we explore the TME as a novel strategy for discovering new anti-tumor drugs. The dynamic and adaptive nature of the TME offers opportunities for targeting specific cellular interactions and signaling pathways. We discuss emerging approaches, such as combination therapies that simultaneously target cancer cells and modulate the TME. Finally, we address the challenges and future prospects in targeting the TME. Overcoming drug resistance, improving drug delivery, and identifying new therapeutic targets within the TME are among the challenges discussed. We also highlight the potential of personalized medicine and the integration of emerging technologies, such as immunotherapy and nanotechnology, in TME-targeted therapies. This comprehensive review provides insights into the TME and its therapeutic implications. Understanding the TME's complexity and targeting its components offer promising avenues for the development of novel anti-tumor therapies and improved patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharav A Desai
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Sanjivani College of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Kopargaon, India
| | - Vipul P Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Sanjivani College of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Kopargaon, India
| | - Kunal P Bhosle
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Sanjivani College of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Kopargaon, India
| | - Sandip D Nagare
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Sanjivani College of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Kopargaon, India
| | - Kirti C Thombare
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Sanjivani College of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Kopargaon, India
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Gu Y, Chen Q, Yin H, Zeng M, Gao S, Wang X. Cancer-associated fibroblasts in neoadjuvant setting for solid cancers. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2024; 193:104226. [PMID: 38056580 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2023.104226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 11/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic approaches for cancer have become increasingly diverse in recent times. A comprehensive understanding of the tumor microenvironment (TME) holds great potential for enhancing the precision of tumor therapies. Neoadjuvant therapy offers the possibility of alleviating patient symptoms and improving overall quality of life. Additionally, it may facilitate the reduction of inoperable tumors and prevent potential preoperative micrometastases. Within the TME, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) play a prominent role as they generate various elements that contribute to tumor progression. Particularly, extracellular matrix (ECM) produced by CAFs prevents immune cell infiltration into the TME, hampers drug penetration, and diminishes therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, this review provides a summary of the heterogeneity and interactions of CAFs within the TME, with a specific focus on the influence of neoadjuvant therapy on the microenvironment, particularly CAFs. Finally, we propose several potential and promising therapeutic strategies targeting CAFs, which may efficiently eliminate CAFs to decrease stroma density and impair their functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Gu
- Department of Radiology, Zhongshan Hospital and Shanghai Institute of Medical Imaging, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Interventional Radiology, Zhongshan Hospital Fudan University Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Qiangda Chen
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Cancer Center, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hanlin Yin
- Department of Pancreatic Surgery, Zhongshan Hospital Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Cancer Center, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Mengsu Zeng
- Department of Radiology, Zhongshan Hospital and Shanghai Institute of Medical Imaging, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Shanshan Gao
- Department of Radiology, Zhongshan Hospital and Shanghai Institute of Medical Imaging, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
| | - Xiaolin Wang
- Department of Radiology, Zhongshan Hospital and Shanghai Institute of Medical Imaging, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China; Department of Interventional Radiology, Zhongshan Hospital Fudan University Shanghai, 200032, China.
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Yao L, Wang Q, Ma W. Navigating the Immune Maze: Pioneering Strategies for Unshackling Cancer Immunotherapy Resistance. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:5857. [PMID: 38136402 PMCID: PMC10742031 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15245857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has ushered in a transformative era in oncology, offering unprecedented promise and opportunities. Despite its remarkable breakthroughs, the field continues to grapple with the persistent challenge of treatment resistance. This resistance not only undermines the widespread efficacy of these pioneering treatments, but also underscores the pressing need for further research. Our exploration into the intricate realm of cancer immunotherapy resistance reveals various mechanisms at play, from primary and secondary resistance to the significant impact of genetic and epigenetic factors, as well as the crucial role of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, we stress the importance of devising innovative strategies to counteract this resistance, such as employing combination therapies, tailoring immune checkpoints, and implementing real-time monitoring. By championing these state-of-the-art methods, we anticipate a paradigm that blends personalized healthcare with improved treatment options and is firmly committed to patient welfare. Through a comprehensive and multifaceted approach, we strive to tackle the challenges of resistance, aspiring to elevate cancer immunotherapy as a beacon of hope for patients around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqin Yao
- Key Laboratory for Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Huzhou University, Huzhou 313000, China
| | - Qingqing Wang
- Institute of Immunology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China;
| | - Wenxue Ma
- Department of Medicine, Moores Cancer Center, Sanford Stem Cell Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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