Description of the First Four Species of the Genus Pseudogymnoascus From Antarctica

Long-term monitoring of the hypogeal Etruscan Tomba degli Scudi, Tarquinia, Italy. Early detection of black spots, investigation of fungal community, and evaluation of their biodeterioration potential

AIMS

Hypogeal environments with cultural heritage interest pose a real challenge for their preservation and conservation. The ancient Etruscan Necropolis of Tarquinia, Italy, consists of 200 tombs decorated with extraordinary mural paintings, of great artistic and historical value. Since the beginning of the restoration campaign in 2016, a regular microbiological survey has been performed in the Tomba degli Scudi. The aim of this study was to investigate the nature of an expansion of black spots on the pictorial layers recently observed.

METHODS AND RESULTS

To determine the origin of the black spots in the atrium chamber of the Tomba degli Scudi, the fungal community was sampled using various techniques: cellulose discs, swabs, and nylon membranes and investigated by a multi-analytical approach. The obtained results suggest that the identified fungal strains (e.g. Gliomastix murorum and Pseudogymnoascus pannorum) are common to many subterranean environments around the world, such as Lascaux cave.

CONCLUSIONS

The continuous and long-term monitoring made it possible to detect alterations at an early stage and assess the harmfulness of different fungal strains. This work is a demonstration of the effectiveness of prevention and monitoring actions within these fragile and valuable environments.

Fungi from Antarctic marine sediment: characterization and assessment for textile dye decolorization and detoxification

Cold-adapted microorganisms can produce enzymes with activity at low and mild temperatures, which can be applied to environmental biotechnology. This study aimed to characterize 20 Antarctic fungi to identify their genus (ITS rDNA marker) and growth temperatures and evaluate their ability to decolorize and detoxify the textile dye indigo carmine (IC). An individual screening was performed to assess the decolorization and detoxification of IC by the isolates, as well as in consortia with other fungi. The isolates were affiliated with seven ascomycete genera: Aspergillus (n = 4), Cosmospora (n = 2), Leuconeurospora (n = 2), Penicillium (n = 3), Pseudogymnoascus (n = 6), Thelebolus (n = 2), and Trichoderma (n = 1). The two isolates from the genus Leuconeurospora were characterized as psychrophilic, while the others were psychrotolerant. The Penicillium isolates were able to decolorize between 60 and 82% of IC. The isolates identified as Pseudogymnoascus showed the best detoxification capacity, with results varying from 49 to 74%. The consortium using only Antarctic ascomycetes (C1) showed 45% of decolorization, while the consortia with the addition of basidiomycetes (C1 + Peniophora and C1 + Pholiota) showed 40% and 50%, respectively. The consortia C1 with the addition of the basidiomycetes presented a lower toxicity after the treatments. In addition, a higher fungal biomass was produced in the presence of dye when compared with the experiment without the dye, which can be indicative of dye metabolization. The results highlight the potential of marine-derived Antarctic fungi in the process of textile dye degradation. The findings encourage further studies to elucidate the degradation and detoxification pathways of the dye IC by these fungal isolates.

Fungal and fungal-like diversity present in ornithogenically influenced maritime Antarctic soils assessed using metabarcoding

We assessed soil fungal and fungal-like diversity using metabarcoding in ornithogenically influenced soils around nests of the bird species Phalacrocorax atriceps, Macronectes giganteus, Pygoscelis antarcticus, and Pygoscelis adelie on the South Shetland Islands, maritime Antarctic. A total of 1,392,784 fungal DNA reads was obtained and assigned to 186 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs). The dominant fungal phylum was Ascomycota, followed by Basidiomycota, Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Rozellomycota, Mortierellomycota, Monoblepharomycota, Aphelidiomycota, Basidiobolomycota, Mucoromycota, and the fungal-like Oomycota (Stramenopila), in rank order. Antarctomyces sp., Blastocladiomycota sp., Pseudogymnoascus pannorum, Microascaceae sp., Mortierella sp., Lobulomycetales sp., Sordariomycetes sp., Fungal sp., Rhizophydiales sp., Pseudeurotiaceae sp., Chytridiomycota sp. 1, Filobasidiella sp., Tausonia pullulans, Betamyces sp., and Leucosporidium sp. were the most abundant assigned taxa. The fungal assemblages present in the different ornithogenically influenced soils displayed different diversity indices. However, in general, we detected high fungal diversity and few taxa shared between the samples. Despite the polyextreme environmental conditions experienced in these Antarctic soils, the metabarcoding approach detected a rich and complex fungal community dominated by saprophytes, but with some pathogenic taxa also present. The community was dominated by psychrophilic and psychrotolerant taxa, some apparently endemic to Antarctica, and those identified only at higher taxonomic levels, which may represent currently undescribed fungi. The mycobiome detected included taxa characterized by different ecological roles, including saprotrophic, human- and animal-associated, phytopathogenic, mutualistic, and cosmopolitan. These fungi may potentially be dispersed by birds or in the air column over great distances, including between different regions within Antarctica and from South America, Africa, and Oceania.

Enzymes and biosurfactants of industrial interest produced by culturable fungi present in sediments of Boeckella Lake, Hope Bay, north-east Antarctic Peninsula

This study characterized cultivable fungi present in sediments obtained from Boeckella Lake, Hope Bay, in the north-east of the Antarctic Peninsula, and evaluated their production of enzymes and biosurfactants of potential industrial interest. A total of 116 fungal isolates were obtained, which were classified into 16 genera within the phyla Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and Mortierellomycota, in rank. The most abundant genera of filamentous fungi included Pseudogymnoascus, Pseudeurotium and Antarctomyces; for yeasts, Thelebolales and Naganishia taxa were dominant. Overall, the lake sediments exhibited high fungal diversity and moderate richness and dominance. The enzymes esterase, cellulase and protease were the most abundantly produced by these fungi. Ramgea cf. ozimecii, Holtermanniella wattica, Leucosporidium creatinivorum, Leucosporidium sp., Mrakia blollopis, Naganishia sp. and Phenoliferia sp. displayed enzymatic index > 2. Fourteen isolates of filamentous fungi demonstrated an Emulsification Index 24% (EI24%) ≥ 50%; among them, three isolates of A. psychrotrophicus showed an EI24% > 80%. Boeckella Lake itself is in the process of drying out due to the impact of regional climate change, and may be lost completely in approaching decades, therefore hosts a threatened community of cultivable fungi that produce important biomolecules with potential application in biotechnological processes.

Endolithic Fungal Diversity in Antarctic Oligocene Rock Samples Explored Using DNA Metabarcoding

In this study, we evaluated the fungal diversity present associated with cores of Oligocene rocks using a DNA metabarcoding approach. We detected 940,969 DNA reads grouped into 198 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) representing the phyla Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Mortierellomycota, Chytridiomycota, Mucoromycota, Rozellomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Monoblepharomycota, Zoopagomycota, Aphelidiomycota (Fungi) and the fungal-like Oomycota (Stramenopila), in rank abundance order. Pseudogymnoascus pannorum, Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., Cladosporium sp., Aspergillaceae sp. and Diaporthaceae sp. were assessed to be dominant taxa, with 22 fungal ASVs displaying intermediate abundance and 170 being minor components of the assigned fungal diversity. The data obtained displayed high diversity indices, while rarefaction indicated that the majority of the diversity was detected. However, the diversity indices varied between the cores analysed. The endolithic fungal community detected using a metabarcoding approach in the Oligocene rock samples examined contains a rich and complex mycobiome comprising taxa with different lifestyles, comparable with the diversity reported in recent studies of a range of Antarctic habitats. Due to the high fungal diversity detected, our results suggest the necessity of further research to develop strategies to isolate these fungi in culture for evolutionary, physiological, and biogeochemical studies, and to assess their potential role in biotechnological applications.

Antarctic fungi produce pigment with antimicrobial and antiparasitic activities

Natural pigments have received special attention from the market and industry as they could overcome the harm to health and the environmental issues caused by synthetic pigments. These pigments are commonly extracted from a wide range of organisms, and when added to products they can alter/add new physical-chemical or biological properties to them. Fungi from extreme environments showed to be a promising source in the search for biomolecules with antimicrobial and antiparasitic potential. This study aimed to isolate fungi from Antarctic soils and screen them for pigment production with antimicrobial and antiparasitic potential, together with other previously isolated strains A total of 52 fungi were isolated from soils in front of the Collins Glacier (Southeast border). Also, 106 filamentous fungi previously isolated from the Collins Glacier (West border) were screened for extracellular pigment production. Five strains were able to produce extracellular pigments and were identified by ITS sequencing as Talaromyces cnidii, Pseudogymnoascus shaanxiensis and Pseudogymnoascus sp. All Pseudogymnoascus spp. (SC04.P3, SC3.P3, SC122.P3 and ACF093) extracts were able to inhibit S. aureus ATCC6538 and two (SC12.P3, SC32.P3) presented activity against Leishmania (L.) infantum, Leishmania amazonensis and Trypanossoma cruzii. Extracts compounds characterization by UPLC-ESI-QToF analysis confirmed the presence of molecules with biological activity such as: Asterric acid, Violaceol, Mollicellin, Psegynamide A, Diorcinol, Thailandolide A. In conclusion, this work showed the potential of Antartic fungal strains from Collins Glacier for bioactive molecules production with activity against Gram positive bacteria and parasitic protozoas.

Fungal diversity present in snow sampled in summer in the north-west Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands, Maritime Antarctica, assessed using metabarcoding

We assessed the fungal diversity present in snow sampled during summer in the north-west Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands, maritime Antarctica using a metabarcoding approach. A total of 586,693 fungal DNA reads were obtained and assigned to 203 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs). The dominant phylum was Ascomycota, followed by Basidiomycota, Mortierellomycota, Chytridiomycota and Mucoromycota. Penicillium sp., Pseudogymnoascus pannorum, Coniochaeta sp., Aspergillus sp., Antarctomyces sp., Phenoliferia sp., Cryolevonia sp., Camptobasidiaceae sp., Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and Bannozyma yamatoana were assessed as abundant taxa. The snow fungal diversity indices were high but varied across the different locations sampled. Of the fungal ASVs detected, only 28 were present all sampling locations. The 116 fungal genera detected in the snow were dominated by saprotrophic taxa, followed by symbiotrophic and pathotrophic. Our data indicate that, despite the low temperature and oligotrophic conditions, snow can host a richer mycobiome than previously reported through traditional culturing studies. The snow mycobiome includes a complex diversity dominated by cosmopolitan, cold-adapted, psychrophilic and endemic taxa. While saprophytes dominate this community, a range of other functional groups are present.

Bisdechlorogeodin from antarctic Pseudogymnoascus sp. LAMAI 2784 for citrus canker control

AIMS

Citrus canker caused by Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (X. citri) is a disease of economic importance. Control of this disease includes the use of metallic copper, which is harmful to the environment and human health. Previous studies showed that the crude extract from the fungus Pseudogymnoascus sp. LAMAI 2784 isolated from Antarctic soil had in vitro antibacterial action against X. citri. The aim of the present study was to expand the applications of this extract.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In greenhouse assays, the crude extract was able to reduce bacterial infection on citrus leaves from 1.55 lesions/cm2 (untreated plants) to 0.04 lesions/cm2. Bisdechlorogeodin was identified as the main compound of the bioactive fraction produced by Pseudogymnoascus sp. LAMAI 2784, which inhibited bacterial growth in vitro (IC90 ≈ 156 µg ml-1) and permeated 80% of X. citri cells, indicating that the membrane is the primary target.

CONCLUSION

The present results showed that the bioactive fraction of the extract is mainly composed of the compound bisdechlorogeodin, which is likely responsible for the biological activity against X. citri, and the main mechanism of action is the targeting of the cell membrane. This study indicates that bisdechlorogeodin has valuable potential for the control of X. citri.

Expanding the Toolbox for Genetic Manipulation in Pseudogymnoascus: RNAi-Mediated Silencing and CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Disruption of a Polyketide Synthase Gene Involved in Red Pigment Production in P. verrucosus

Fungi belonging to the genus Pseudogymnoascus have garnered increasing attention in recent years. One of the members of the genus, P. destructans, has been identified as the causal agent of a severe bat disease. Simultaneously, the knowledge of Pseudogymnoascus species has expanded, in parallel with the increased availability of genome sequences. Moreover, Pseudogymnoascus exhibits great potential as a producer of specialized metabolites, displaying a diverse array of biological activities. Despite these significant advancements, the genetic landscape of Pseudogymnoascus remains largely unexplored due to the scarcity of suitable molecular tools for genetic manipulation. In this study, we successfully implemented RNAi-mediated gene silencing and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated disruption in Pseudogymnoascus, using an Antarctic strain of Pseudogymnoascus verrucosus as a model. Both methods were applied to target azpA, a gene involved in red pigment biosynthesis. Silencing of the azpA gene to levels of 90% or higher eliminated red pigment production, resulting in transformants exhibiting a white phenotype. On the other hand, the CRISPR/Cas9 system led to a high percentage (73%) of transformants with a one-nucleotide insertion, thereby inactivating azpA and abolishing red pigment production, resulting in a white phenotype. The successful application of RNAi-mediated gene silencing and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated disruption represents a significant advancement in Pseudogymnoascus research, opening avenues for comprehensive functional genetic investigations within this underexplored fungal genus.

The First Description of the Microbial Diversity in the Amarillo River (La Rioja, Argentina), a Natural Extreme Environment Where the Whole Microbial Community Paints the Landscape Yellow

The Amarillo River in Famatina, La Rioja, Argentina, is a natural acidic river with distinctive yellow-ochreous iron precipitates along its course. While mining activities have occurred in the area, the river's natural acidity is influenced by environmental factors beyond mineralogy, where microbial species have a crucial role. Although iron-oxidising bacteria have been identified, a comprehensive analysis of the entire microbial community in this extreme environment has not yet been conducted. In this study, we employ high-throughput sequencing to explore the bacterial and fungal diversity in the Amarillo River and Cueva de Pérez terraces, considered prehistoric analogues of the current river basin. Fe(II)-enrichment cultures mimicking different environmental conditions of the river were also analysed to better understand the roles of prokaryotes and fungi in iron oxidation processes. Additionally, we investigate the ecological relationships between bacteria and fungi using co-occurrence and network analysis. Our findings reveal a diverse bacterial community in the river and terraces, including uncultured species affiliated with Acidimicrobiia, part of an uncharacterised universal microbial acidic diversity. Acidophiles such as Acidithiobacillus ferrivorans, the main iron oxidiser of the system, and Acidiphilium, which is unable to catalyse Fe(II) oxidation but has a great metabolic flexibility,, are part of the core of the microbial community, showing significant involvement in intraspecies interactions. Alicyclobacillus, which is the main Fe(II) oxidiser in the enrichment culture at 30 °C and is detected all over the system, highlights its flexibility towards the iron cycle. The prevalence of key microorganisms in both rivers and terraces implies their enduring contribution to the iron cycle as well as in shaping the iconic yellow landscape of the Amarillo River. In conclusion, this study enhances our understanding of microbial involvement in iron mineral precipitation, emphasising the collaborative efforts of bacteria and fungi as fundamental geological agents in the Amarillo River.

Geographical Diversity of Proteomic Responses to Cold Stress in the Fungal Genus Pseudogymnoascus

In understanding stress response mechanisms in fungi, cold stress has received less attention than heat stress. However, cold stress has shown its importance in various research fields. The following study examined the cold stress response of six Pseudogymnoascus spp. isolated from various biogeographical regions through a proteomic approach. In total, 2541 proteins were identified with high confidence. Gene Ontology enrichment analysis showed diversity in the cold stress response pathways for all six Pseudogymnoascus spp. isolates, with metabolic and translation-related processes being prominent in most isolates. 25.6% of the proteins with an increase in relative abundance were increased by more than 3.0-fold. There was no link between the geographical origin of the isolates and the cold stress response of Pseudogymnoascus spp. However, one Antarctic isolate, sp3, showed a distinctive cold stress response profile involving increased flavin/riboflavin biosynthesis and methane metabolism. This Antarctic isolate (sp3) was also the only one that showed decreased phospholipid metabolism in cold stress conditions. This work will improve our understanding of the mechanisms of cold stress response and adaptation in psychrotolerant soil microfungi, with specific attention to the fungal genus Pseudogymnoascus.

Culturable fungi from urban soils in China II, with the description of 18 novel species in Ascomycota (Dothideomycetes, Eurotiomycetes, Leotiomycetes and Sordariomycetes)

As China's urbanisation continues to advance, more people are choosing to live in cities. However, this trend has a significant impact on the natural ecosystem. For instance, the accumulation of keratin-rich substrates in urban habitats has led to an increase in keratinophilic microbes. Despite this, there is still a limited amount of research on the prevalence of keratinophilic fungi in urban areas. Fortunately, our group has conducted in-depth investigations into this topic since 2015. Through our research, we have discovered a significant amount of keratinophilic fungi in soil samples collected from various urban areas in China. In this study, we have identified and characterised 18 new species through the integration of morphological and phylogenetic analyses. These findings reveal the presence of numerous unexplored fungal taxa in urban habitats, emphasising the need for further taxonomic research in urban China.

Additions to Thelebolales (Leotiomycetes, Ascomycota): Pseudogeomyces lindneri gen. et sp. nov. and Pseudogymnoascus campensis sp. nov

Thelebolales are globally distributed fungi with diverse ecological characteristics. The classification of Thelebolales remains controversial to date and this study introduces two new taxa, based on morphological and phylogenetic analyses. The results of phylogenetic analyses indicated that the new taxa formed distinct lineages with strong support that were separated from the other members of Thelebolales. The new taxa described herein did not form sexual structures. The phylogenetic relationships of the new taxa and the morphological differences between these taxa and the other species under Thelebolales are also discussed.

Fungal Diversity in Korean Caves and Cave-Inhabiting Bats with Attention to Pseudogymnoascus Species

Pseudogymnoascus is a psychrophilic fungus, which is a genus widely distributed in cold regions around the world. Recently, the presence of Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), the causative agent of white-nose syndrome (WNS) belonging to Pseudogymnoascus, has been reported in neighboring countries of Korea. However, no investigation on Pd has been reported in Korea. In this study, cave-inhabiting bats and their habitats were investigated in terms of the diversity of cave fungi, and we tried to confirm the presence of Pd. Three caves suspected of hosting Pd were selected, and 83 environmental and 53 bat samples were collected. A total of 154 fungal strains belonging to 31 different genera were isolated, and 20 of 154 were confirmed to belong to Pseudogymnoascus. Pd-diagnostic PCR was performed to check whether Pd was present in the isolated Pseudogymnoascus, and seven positives were confirmed. However, phylogenetic analyses revealed that no isolates belonged or were closely related to the clade with Pd. Although samples were collected from limited areas, undescribed Pseudogymnoascus species were isolated, and it was confirmed that Korean isolates were distributed in various clades. In conclusion, it is hypothesized that Korean Pseudogymnoascus presents high diversity.

First Isolation of Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the Fungal Causative Agent of White-Nose Syndrome, in Korean Bats (Myotis petax)

White-nose syndrome (WNS), caused by Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), is a lethal fungal disease that affects hibernating bats in North America. Recently, the presence of Pd was reported in countries neighboring Korea. However, Pd has not been investigated in Korea. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the presence of Pd in Korean bats. Altogether, wings from 241 bats were collected from 13 cities and cultured. A total of 79 fungal colonies were isolated, and two isolates were identified as Pd using polymerase chain reaction. Of the nine bat species captured in 13 cities, Pd was isolated only from Myotis petax in Goryeong. Atypical, curved conidia were observed in two isolated fungal colonies. Although histological lesions were not observed by hematoxylin and eosin or periodic acid−Schiff staining, fungal invasion was observed in the tissue sections. Taken together, these results confirmed the presence of Pd in Korean bats and suggest the possibility of WNS outbreaks in Korean bats. This is the first report of the isolation and molecular analysis of Pd from Korean bats.

UV-B-induced DNA damage and repair pathways in polar Pseudogymnoascus sp. from the Arctic and Antarctic regions and their effects on growth, pigmentation, and coniodiogenesis

Solar radiation regulates most biological activities on Earth. Prolonged exposure to solar UV radiation can cause deleterious effects by inducing two major types of DNA damage, namely cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and pyrimidine 6-4 pyrimidone photoproducts (6-4PPs). These lesions may be repaired by the photoreactivation (Phr) and nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathways; however, the principal UV-induced DNA repair pathway is not known in the fungal genus Pseudogymnoascus. In this study, we demonstrated that an unweighted UV-B dosage of 1.6 kJ m^-2 d^-1 significantly reduced fungal growth rates (by between 22 and 35%) and inhibited conidia production in a 10 d exposure. The comparison of two DNA repair conditions, light or dark, which respectively induced photoreactivation (Phr) and nucleotide excision repair (NER), showed that the UV-B induced CPDs were repaired significantly more rapidly in light than in dark conditions. The expression levels of two DNA repair genes, RAD2 and PHR1 (encoding a protein in NER and Phr, respectively) demonstrated that NER rather than Phr was primarily activated for repairing UV-B-induced DNA damage in these Pseudogymnoascus strains. In contrast, Phr was inhibited after exposure to UV-B radiation, suggesting that PHR1 may have other functional roles. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Apothecial Ancestry, Evolution, and Re-Evolution in Thelebolales (Leotiomycetes, Fungi)

Simple Summary

Leotiomycetes is one of the most speciose classes of the phylum Ascomycota (Fungi). Its species are mainly apothecioid, paraphysate, and possess active ascospore discharge. Thelebolales are a distinctive order of the Leotiomycetes class whose members have mostly closed ascomata, evanescent asci, and thus passively dispersed ascospores. Within the order, a great diversity of peridia have evolved as adaptations to different dispersal strategies. The genus Thelebolus is an exceptional case of ascomatal evolution within the order. Its species are the most diverse in functional traits, encompassing species with closed ascomata and evanescent asci, and species with open ascomata, active ascospore discharge, and paraphyses. Open ascomata were previously suggested as the ancestral state in the genus, these ascomata depend on mammals and birds as dispersal agents. In our work, we used morphological and phylogenetic methods, as well as the reconstruction of ancestral traits for ascomatal type, asci dehiscence, the presence or absence of paraphyses, and ascospore features to explore evolution within Thelebolales. We demonstrate the apothecial ancestry in Thelebolales and propose a new hypothesis about the evolution of the open ascomata in Thelebolus involving a process of re-evolution where the active dispersal of ascospores appears independently twice within the order. A new family, Holwayaceae, is proposed within Thelebolales, comprising three genera: Holwaya, Patinella, and Ramgea.

Abstract

Closed cleistothecia-like ascomata have repeatedly evolved in non-related perithecioid and apothecioid lineages of lichenized and non-lichenized Ascomycota. The evolution of a closed, darkly pigmented ascoma that protects asci and ascospores is conceived as either an adaptation to harsh environmental conditions or a specialized dispersal strategy. Species with closed ascomata have mostly lost sterile hymenial elements (paraphyses) and the capacity to actively discharge ascospores. The class Leotiomycetes, one of the most speciose classes of Ascomycota, is mainly apothecioid, paraphysate, and possesses active ascospore discharge. Lineages with closed ascomata, and their morphological variants, have evolved independently in several families, such as Erysiphaceae, Myxotrichaceae, Rutstroemiaceae, etc. Thelebolales is a distinctive order in the Leotiomycetes class. It has two widespread families (Thelebolaceae, Pseudeurotiaceae) with mostly closed ascomata, evanescent asci, and thus passively dispersed ascospores. Within the order, closed ascomata dominate and a great diversity of peridia have evolved as adaptations to different dispersal strategies. The type genus, Thelebolus, is an exceptional case of ascomatal evolution within the order. Its species are the most diverse in functional traits, encompassing species with closed ascomata and evanescent asci, and species with open ascomata, active ascospore discharge, and paraphyses. Open ascomata were previously suggested as the ancestral state in the genus, these ascomata depend on mammals and birds as dispersal agents. In this scheme, species with closed ascomata, a lack of paraphyses, and passive ascospore discharge exhibit derived traits that evolved in adaptation to cold ecosystems. Here, we used morphological and phylogenetic methods, as well as the reconstruction of ancestral traits for ascomatal type, asci dehiscence, the presence or absence of paraphyses, and ascospore features to explore evolution within Thelebolales. We demonstrate the apothecial ancestry in Thelebolales and propose a new hypothesis about the evolution of the open ascomata in Thelebolus, involving a process of re-evolution where the active dispersal of ascospores appears independently twice within the order. We propose a new family, Holwayaceae, within Thelebolales, that retains the phenotypic features exhibited by species of Thelebolus, i.e., pigmented capitate paraphyses and active asci discharge with an opening limitation ring.