1
|
Barone GD, Tagliaro I, Oliver-Simancas R, Radice M, Kalossaka LM, Mattei M, Biundo A, Pisano I, Jiménez-Quero A. Keratinous and corneous-based products towards circular bioeconomy: A research review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 22:100444. [PMID: 39183760 PMCID: PMC11342888 DOI: 10.1016/j.ese.2024.100444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024]
Abstract
Keratins and corneous proteins are key components of biomaterials used in a wide range of applications and are potential substitutes for petrochemical-based products. Horns, hooves, feathers, claws, and similar animal tissues are abundant sources of α-keratin and corneous β-proteins, which are by-products of the food industry. Their close association with the meat industry raises environmental and ethical concerns regarding their disposal. To promote an eco-friendly and circular use of these materials in novel applications, efforts have focused on recovering these residues to develop sustainable, non-animal-related, affordable, and scalable procedures. Here, we review and examine biotechnological methods for extracting and expressing α-keratins and corneous β-proteins in microorganisms. This review highlights consolidated research trends in biomaterials, medical devices, food supplements, and packaging, demonstrating the keratin industry's potential to create innovative value-added products. Additionally, it analyzes the state of the art of related intellectual property and market size to underscore the potential within a circular bioeconomic model.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Irene Tagliaro
- Department of Materials Science, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126, Milano, Italy
| | - Rodrigo Oliver-Simancas
- Division of Industrial Biotechnology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, 41296, Sweden
| | - Matteo Radice
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Livia M. Kalossaka
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub, Imperial College London, W12 0BZ London, United Kingdom
| | - Michele Mattei
- Libera Università Internazionale Degli Studi Sociali “Guido Carli”, I-00198, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonino Biundo
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
| | - Isabella Pisano
- Department of Biosciences, Biotechnology and Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70125, Bari, Italy
- CIRCC – Interuniversity Consortium Chemical Reactivity and Catalysis, Via C. Ulpiani 27, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Amparo Jiménez-Quero
- Division of Industrial Biotechnology, Department of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, 41296, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kumari P, Abhinand CS, Kumari R, Upadhyay A, Satheeshkumar PK. Design, development and characterization of a chimeric protein with disulfide reductase and protease domain showing keratinase activity. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 278:135025. [PMID: 39187103 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 07/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/21/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024]
Abstract
Keratin is one of the major components of solid waste, and the degradation products have extensive applications in various commercial industries. Due to the complexity of the structure of keratin, especially the disulfide bonds between keratin polypeptides, keratinolytic activity is efficient with a mixture of proteins with proteases, peptidases, and oxidoreductase activity. The present work aimed to create an engineered chimeric protein with a disulfide reductase domain and a protease domain connected with a flexible linker. The structure, stability, and substrate interaction were analyzed using the protein modeling tools and codon-optimized synthetic gene cloned, expressed, and purified using Ni2+-NTA chromatography. The keratinolytic activity of the protein was at its maximum at 70 °C. The suitable pH for the enzyme activity was pH 8. While Ni2+, Mg2+, and Na+ inhibited the keratinolytic activity, Cu2+, Ca2+, and Mn2+ enhanced it significantly. Biochemical characterization of the protease domain indicated significant keratinolytic activity at 70 °C at pH 10.0 but was less efficient than the chimeric protein. Experiments using feathers as the substrate showed a clear degradation pattern in the SEM analysis. The samples collected from the degradation experiments indicated the release of proteins (2-fold) and amino acids (8.4-fold) in a time-dependent manner. Thus, the protease with an added disulfide reductase domain showed excellent keratin degradation activity and has the potential to be utilized in the commercial industries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Kumari
- Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Chandran S Abhinand
- Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya Research Center, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore 575018, India
| | - Ritu Kumari
- Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Astha Upadhyay
- Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India
| | - Padikara K Satheeshkumar
- Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 221005, India.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Das S, Das A, Das N, Nath T, Langthasa M, Pandey P, Kumar V, Choure K, Kumar S, Pandey P. Harnessing the potential of microbial keratinases for bioconversion of keratin waste. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-34233-6. [PMID: 38985428 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34233-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
The increasing global consumption of poultry meat has led to the generation of a vast quantity of feather keratin waste daily, posing significant environmental challenges due to improper disposal methods. A growing focus is on utilizing keratinous polymeric waste, amounting to millions of tons annually. Keratins are biochemically rigid, fibrous, recalcitrant, physiologically insoluble, and resistant to most common proteolytic enzymes. Microbial biodegradation of feather keratin provides a viable solution for augmenting feather waste's nutritional value while mitigating environmental contamination. This approach offers an alternative to traditional physical and chemical treatments. This review focuses on the recent findings and work trends in the field of keratin degradation by microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi) via keratinolytic and proteolytic enzymes, as well as the limitations and challenges encountered due to the low thermal stability of keratinase, and degradation in the complex environmental conditions. Therefore, recent biotechnological interventions such as designing novel keratinase with high keratinolytic activity, thermostability, and binding affinity have been elaborated here. Enhancing protein structural rigidity through critical engineering approaches, such as rational design, has shown promise in improving the thermal stability of proteins. Concurrently, metagenomic annotation offers insights into the genetic foundations of keratin breakdown, primarily predicting metabolic potential and identifying probable keratinases. This may extend the understanding of microbial keratinolytic mechanisms in a complex community, recognizing the significance of synergistic interactions, which could be further utilized in optimizing industrial keratin degradation processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Das
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Ankita Das
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Nandita Das
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Tamanna Nath
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | | | - Prisha Pandey
- Department of Biotechnology, Royal Global University, Guwahati, 781035, Assam, India
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Himalayan School of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun, India, 248016
| | - Kamlesh Choure
- Department of Biotechnology, AKS University, Satna, 485001, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Sanjeev Kumar
- Department of Life Sciences and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India
| | - Piyush Pandey
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011, Assam, India.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Gahatraj I, Roy R, Sharma A, Phukan BC, Kumar S, Kumar D, Pandey P, Bhattacharya P, Borah A. Identification of molecular interactions of pesticides with keratinase for their potential to inhibit keratin biodegradation. In Silico Pharmacol 2024; 12:54. [PMID: 38860143 PMCID: PMC11162408 DOI: 10.1007/s40203-024-00229-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The recalcitrant, fibrous protein keratin is found in the outermost layer of vertebrate skin, feathers, hair, horn, and hooves. Approximately, 10 million tons of keratin wastes are produced annually worldwide, of which around 8.5 million tons are from feather wastes. The biodegradation of keratin has been a challenge due to the lack of understanding of biological parameters that modulate the process. Few soil-borne microbes are capable of producing keratinase enzyme which has the potential to degrade the hard keratin. However, various pesticides are abundantly used for the management of poultry farms and reports suggest the presence of the pesticide residues in feather. Hence, it was hypothesized that pesticides would interact with the substrate-binding or allosteric sites of the keratinase enzyme and interferes with the keratin-degradation process. In the present study, molecular interactions of 20 selected pesticides with the keratinase enzyme were analyzed by performing molecular docking. In blind docking, 14 out of 20 pesticides showed higher inhibitory potential than the known inhibitor phenylmethylsulfonyl flouride, all of which exhibited higher inhibitory potential in site-specific docking. The stability and strength of the protein complexes formed by the top best potential pesticides namely fluralaner, teflubenzuron, cyhalothrin, and cyfluthrin has been further validated by molecular dynamic simulation studies. The present study is the first report for the preliminary investigation of the keratinase-inhibitory potential of pesticides and highlights the plausible role of these pesticides in hindering the biological process of keratin degradation and thereby their contribution in environmental pollution. Graphical abstract Illustration depicting the hypothesis, experimental procedure, and the resultant keratinase-inhibitory potential of selected pesticides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Indira Gahatraj
- Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, 788011 India
| | - Rubina Roy
- Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, 788011 India
| | - Anupama Sharma
- Department of Computational Sciences, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, 151401 India
| | | | - Sanjeev Kumar
- Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, 788011 India
| | - Diwakar Kumar
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011 India
| | - Piyush Pandey
- Department of Microbiology, Assam University, Silchar, 788011 India
| | - Pallab Bhattacharya
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Ahmedabad, 382355 Gandhinagar, Gujarat India
| | - Anupom Borah
- Department of Life Science and Bioinformatics, Assam University, Silchar, 788011 India
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ke K, Sun Y, He T, Liu W, Wen Y, Liu S, Wang Q, Gao X. Effects of Feather Hydrolysates Generated by Probiotic Bacillus licheniformis WHU on Gut Microbiota of Broiler and Common carp. J Microbiol 2024; 62:473-487. [PMID: 38421547 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-024-00118-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Due to the ever-increasing demand for meat, it has become necessary to identify cheap and sustainable sources of protein for animal feed. Feathers are the major byproduct of poultry industry, which are rich in hard-to-degrade keratin protein. Previously we found that intact feathers can be digested into free amino acids, short peptides, and nano-/micro-keratin particles by the strain Bacillus licheniformis WHU in water, and the resulting feather hydrolysates exhibit prebiotic effects on mice. To explore the potential utilization of feather hydrolysate in the feed industry, we investigated its effects on the gut microbiota of broilers and fish. Our results suggest that feather hydrolysates significantly decrease and increase the diversity of gut microbial communities in broilers and fish, respectively. The composition of the gut microbiota was markedly altered in both of the animals. The abundance of bacteria with potentially pathogenic phenotypes in the gut microbial community of the fish significantly decreased. Staphylococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Neisseria spp., Achromobacter spp. were significantly inhibited by the feather hydrolysates. In addition, feather hydrolysates significantly improved proteolytic activity in the guts of broilers and fish. In fish, the expression levels of ZO-1 and TGF-α significantly improved after administration of feather hydrolysates. The results presented here suggest that feather hydrolysates generated by B. licheniformis WHU could be an alternative protein source in aquaculture and could exert beneficial effects on fish.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kamin Ke
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingjie Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingting He
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenbo Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Yijiao Wen
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Siyuan Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Qin Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China.
- Dazhou Vocational College of Chinese Medicine, Dazhou, 635000, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiaowei Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China.
- Green Pharmaceutical Technology Key Laboratory of Luzhou, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zhu X, Zhao YF, Wen HJ, Lu Y, You S, Herman RA, Wang J. Silkworm pupae protein co-degradation by magnetic nanoparticles immobilized proteinase K and Mucor circinelloides aspartic protease for further utilization of sericulture by-products. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 249:118385. [PMID: 38331140 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Silkworm pupae, by-product of sericulture industry, is massively discarded. The degradation rate of silkworm pupae protein is critical to further employment, which reduces the impact of waste on the environment. Herein, magnetic Janus mesoporous silica nanoparticles immobilized proteinase K mutant T206M and Mucor circinelloides aspartic protease were employed in the co-degradation. The thermostability of T206M improved by enhancing structural rigidity (t1/2 by 30 min and T50 by 5 °C), prompting the degradation efficiency. At 65 °C and pH 7, degradation rate reached the highest of 61.7%, which improved by 26% compared with single free protease degradation. Besides, the immobilized protease is easy to separate and reuse, which maintains 50% activity after 10 recycles. Therefore, immobilized protease co-degradation was first applied to the development and utilization of silkworm pupae resulting in the release of promising antioxidant properties and reduces the environmental impact by utilizing a natural and renewable resource.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Zhu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, China
| | - Yi-Fan Zhao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, China
| | - Hong-Jian Wen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, China
| | - Yu Lu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, China
| | - Shuai You
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, China; Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, 212100, China
| | - Richard Ansah Herman
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, China; Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, 212100, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Sericultural Biology and Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang, 212100, China; Key Laboratory of Silkworm and Mulberry Genetic Improvement, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, The Sericultural Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhenjiang, 212100, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Saeed M, Yan M, Ni Z, Hussain N, Chen H. Molecular strategies to enhance the keratinase gene expression and its potential implications in poultry feed industry. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103606. [PMID: 38479096 PMCID: PMC10951097 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The tons of keratin waste are produced by the poultry and meat industry which is an insoluble and protein-rich material found in hair, feathers, wool, and some epidermal wastes. These waste products could be degraded and recycled to recover protein, which can save our environment. One of the potential strategy to achieve this target is use of microbial biotreatment which is more convenient, cost-effective, and environment-friendly by formulating hydrolysate complexes that could be administered as protein supplements, bioactive peptides, or animal feed ingredients. Keratin degradation shows great promise for long-term protein and amino acid recycling. According to the MEROPS database, known keratinolytic enzymes currently belong to at least 14 different protease families, including S1, S8, S9, S10, S16, M3, M4, M14, M16, M28, M32, M36, M38, and M55. In addition to exogenous attack (proteases from families S9, S10, M14, M28, M38, and M55), the various keratinolytic enzymes also function via endo-attack (proteases from families S1, S8, S16, M4, M16, and M36). Biotechnological methods have shown great promise for enhancing keratinase expression in different strains of microbes and different protein engineering techniques in genetically modified microbes such as bacteria and some fungi to enhance keratinase production and activity. Some microbes produce specific keratinolytic enzymes that can effectively degrade keratin substrates. Keratinases have been successfully used in the leather, textile, and pharmaceutical industries. However, the production and efficiency of existing enzymes need to be optimized before they can be used more widely in other processes, such as the cost-effective pretreatment of chicken waste. These can be improved more effectively by using various biotechnological applications which could serve as the best and novel approach for recycling and degrading biomass. This paper provides practical insights about molecular strategies to enhance keratinase expression to effectively utilize various poultry wastes like feathers and feed ingredients like soybean pulp. Furthermore, it describes the future implications of engineered keratinases for environment friendly utilization of wastes and crop byproducts for their better use in the poultry feed industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Saeed
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
| | - Mingchen Yan
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
| | - Zhong Ni
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
| | - Nazar Hussain
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China
| | - Huayou Chen
- School of Life Sciences, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abd El-Aziz NM, Khalil BE, El-Gamal NN. Structure prediction, docking studies and molecular cloning of novel Pichia kudriavzevii YK46 metalloprotease (MetPr) for improvement of feather waste biodegradation. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19989. [PMID: 37968282 PMCID: PMC10651840 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-47179-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023] Open
Abstract
This study addresses the environmental risks associated with the accumulation of keratin waste from poultry, which is resistant to conventional protein degradation methods. To tackle this issue, microbial keratinases have emerged as promising tools for transforming resilient keratin materials into valuable products. We focus on the Metalloprotease (MetPr) gene isolated from novel Pichia kudriavzevii YK46, sequenced, and deposited in the NCBI GenBank database with the accession number OQ511281. The MetPr gene encodes a protein consisting of 557 amino acids and demonstrates a keratinase activity of 164.04 U/ml. The 3D structure of the protein was validated using Ramachandran's plot, revealing that 93% and 97.26% of the 557 residues were situated within the most favoured region for the MetPr proteins of template Pichia kudriavzevii strain 129 and Pichia kudriavzevii YK46, respectively. Computational analyses were employed to determine the binding affinities between the deduced protein and beta keratin. Molecular docking studies elucidated the optimal binding affinities between the metalloprotease (MetPr) and beta-keratin, yielding values of - 260.75 kcal/mol and - 257.02 kcal/mol for the template strains Pichia kudriavzevii strain 129 and Pichia kudriavzevii YK46, respectively. Subsequent molecular cloning and expression of the MetPr gene in E. coli DH5α led to a significantly higher keratinase activity of 281 ± 12.34 U/ml. These findings provide valuable insights into the potential of the MetPr gene and its encoded protein for keratin waste biotransformation, with implications for addressing environmental concerns related to keratinous waste accumulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nagwa M Abd El-Aziz
- Microbial Genetic Department, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Centre, 33 El Buhouth ST, Dokki, Cairo, 12622, Egypt.
| | - Bigad E Khalil
- Microbial Genetic Department, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Centre, 33 El Buhouth ST, Dokki, Cairo, 12622, Egypt
| | - Nora N El-Gamal
- Microbial Chemistry Department, Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Centre, 33 El Buhouth ST, Dokki, Cairo, 12622, Egypt
| |
Collapse
|