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Sorokowski P, Kowal M. Relationship between the 2D:4D and prenatal testosterone, adult level testosterone, and testosterone change: Meta-analysis of 54 studies. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 183:20-38. [PMID: 37795916 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
The ratio between the hands' second to the fourth finger (2D:4D) is commonly hypothesized to result from prenatal testosterone. The 2D:4D has also been hypothesized to relate to adult-level testosterone and, more recently, to the testosterone response to a challenging situation. In the present work, we tested these core assumptions. Drawing from, in total, 54 studies and 8077 participants, we investigated whether the 2D:4D is related to adult level testosterone (44 studies), testosterone change (6 studies), and prenatal testosterone (10 studies). We found no evidence of the relationship between the above testosterone types and digit ratios. Furthermore, there was no relationship between testosterone and the right and left 2D:4D, male and female 2D:4D, and the 2D:4D and testosterone measurement (i.e., measured in blood or saliva). However, we found some evidence that prenatal testosterone measured in amniotic fluid (but not cord blood) might be related to the digit ratios-further studies are necessary to validate this observation. In summary, considering the current state of knowledge, any conclusions drawn from the assumption of the digit ratios as the proxy for testosterone (prenatal, adult level, or testosterone change under a challenging situation) warrant great caution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Kowal
- IDN Being Human Lab, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
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Kowal M, Sorokowski P, Żelaźniewicz A, Nowak J, Orzechowski S, Żurek G, Żurek A, Juszkiewicz A, Wojtycka L, Sieniuć W, Poniatowska M, Tarnowska K, Kowalska K, Drabik K, Łukaszek P, Krawczyk K, Stefaniak T, Danek N. No relationship between the digit ratios (2D:4D) and salivary testosterone change: Study on men under an acute exercise. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10068. [PMID: 32572079 PMCID: PMC7308391 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66915-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The digit ratio (2D:4D) is said to be a potential marker of exposure to prenatal sex steroids. Some studies suggest that the 2D:4D is also linked with the testosterone response to challenging situations due to organizational effect of prenatal hormonal milieu on adult endocrine functioning. However, up to date, there were only four studies (conducted on small samples) that examined the 2D:4D and the testosterone response to a challenging situation (i.e. physical exertion or aggressive context). Here, we examined the relationship between the 2D:4D and the testosterone change under an acute exercise among 97 men. We found that the digit ratios (the right 2D:4D, the left 2D:4D, and the right minus left 2D:4D) were neither predictors of pre-exercise testosterone, nor the change in testosterone level after a cycling task. Our results add a contradictory to previous studies evidence in a discussion on the links of the 2D:4D and the testosterone change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Kowal
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Piotr Sorokowski
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland.
| | | | - Judyta Nowak
- Department of Human Biology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | | | - Grzegorz Żurek
- University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Alina Żurek
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | | | - Lidia Wojtycka
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | | | | | | | - Kaja Kowalska
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
| | | | | | | | | | - Natalia Danek
- University School of Physical Education in Wrocław, Wrocław, Poland
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Parslow E, Ranehill E, Zethraeus N, Blomberg L, von Schoultz B, Hirschberg AL, Johannesson M, Dreber A. The digit ratio (2D:4D) and economic preferences: no robust associations in a sample of 330 women. JOURNAL OF THE ECONOMIC SCIENCE ASSOCIATION 2019; 5:149-169. [PMID: 31894199 PMCID: PMC6917633 DOI: 10.1007/s40881-019-00076-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Many studies report on the association between 2D:4D, a putative marker for prenatal testosterone exposure, and economic preferences. However, most of these studies have limited sample sizes and test multiple hypotheses (without preregistration). In this study we mainly replicate the common specifications found in the literature for the association between the 2D:4D ratio and risk taking, the willingness to compete, and dictator game giving separately. In a sample of 330 women we find no robust associations between any of these economic preferences and 2D:4D. We find no evidence of a statistically significant relation for 16 of the 18 total regressions we run. The two regression specifications which are statistically significant have not previously been reported and the associations are not in the expected direction, and therefore they are unlikely to represent a real effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elle Parslow
- Department of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, P.O Box 6501, 11383 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Eva Ranehill
- Department of Economics, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Niklas Zethraeus
- Department of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Liselott Blomberg
- Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Bo von Schoultz
- Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | | | - Magnus Johannesson
- Department of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, P.O Box 6501, 11383 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Dreber
- Department of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, P.O Box 6501, 11383 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Economics, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Richards G, Davies W, Stewart-Williams S, Bellin W, Reed P. 2D:4D digit ratio and religiosity in university student and general population samples. TRANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2018; 20:23-36. [PMID: 30283240 PMCID: PMC6166858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The ratio of index to ring finger length (2D:4D) is used as a proxy for prenatal sex hormone exposure. It has been hypothesised to correlate with religiosity, though no published research has explored this possibility. Here, we initially examined 2D:4D in relation to self-reported religious affiliation and questionnaire measures of general religiosity, spirituality, religious fundamentalism, and religious commitment in male (N = 106) and female (N = 105) university students (Study 1). Although no significant correlations were observed between 2D:4D and the questionnaire measures, females who affiliated with organised religions had higher digit ratios compared to agnostic or atheist females. Study 2 attempted to replicate these findings in an adult general population sample (N = 172 males, N = 257 females), but did not observe significant effects in either sex. Overall, these findings suggest that high 2D:4D may be relatively-specifically associated with religious affiliation in young, highly-educated, females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Richards
- Centre for Research on Play in Education, Development & Learning, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, UK
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - William Davies
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences and Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Schools of Psychology and Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | | | | | - Phil Reed
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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