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Rupar MJ, Hanson H, Rogers S, Botlick B, Trimmer S, Hickman JJ. Modelling the innate immune system in microphysiological systems. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:3604-3625. [PMID: 38957150 PMCID: PMC11264333 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00812f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
This critical review aims to highlight how modeling of the immune response has adapted over time to utilize microphysiological systems. Topics covered here will discuss the integral components of the immune system in various human body systems, and how these interactions are modeled using these systems. Through the use of microphysiological systems, we have not only expanded on foundations of basic immune cell information, but have also gleaned insight on how immune cells work both independently and collaboratively within an entire human body system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Rupar
- Hesperos, Inc., 12501 Research Parkway, Suite 100, Orlando, FL 32826, USA.
| | - Hannah Hanson
- Hesperos, Inc., 12501 Research Parkway, Suite 100, Orlando, FL 32826, USA.
| | - Stephanie Rogers
- Hesperos, Inc., 12501 Research Parkway, Suite 100, Orlando, FL 32826, USA.
| | - Brianna Botlick
- Hesperos, Inc., 12501 Research Parkway, Suite 100, Orlando, FL 32826, USA.
| | - Steven Trimmer
- Hesperos, Inc., 12501 Research Parkway, Suite 100, Orlando, FL 32826, USA.
| | - James J Hickman
- Hesperos, Inc., 12501 Research Parkway, Suite 100, Orlando, FL 32826, USA.
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Mei SY, Zhang N, Wang MJ, Lv PR, Liu Q. Microglial purinergic signaling in Alzheimer's disease. Purinergic Signal 2024:10.1007/s11302-024-10029-8. [PMID: 38910192 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-024-10029-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disease. The prevalent features of AD pathogenesis are the appearance of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, which cause microglial activation, synaptic deficiency, and neuronal loss. Microglia accompanies AD pathological processes and is also linked to cognitive deficits. Purinergic signaling has been shown to play a complex and tight interplay with the chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and production of pro-inflammatory factors in microglia, which is an important mechanism for regulating microglia activation. Here, we review recent evidence for interactions between AD, microglia, and purinergic signaling and find that the purinergic P2 receptors pertinently expressed on microglia are the ionotropic receptors P2X4 and P2X7, and the subtypes of P2YRs expressed by microglia are metabotropic receptors P2Y2, P2Y6, P2Y12, and P2Y13. The adenosine P1 receptors expressed in microglia include A1R, A2AR, and A2BR. Among them, the activation of P2X4, P2X7, and adenosine A1, A2A receptors expressed in microglia can aggravate the pathological process of AD, whereas P2Y2, P2Y6, P2Y12, and P2Y13 receptors expressed by microglia can induce neuroprotective effects. However, A1R activation also has a strong neuroprotective effect and has a significant anti-inflammatory effect in chronic neuroinflammation. These receptors regulate a variety of pathophysiological processes in AD, including APP processing, Aβ production, tau phosphorylation, neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and mitochondrial dysfunction. This review also provides key pharmacological advances in purinergic signaling receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Ya Mei
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 1 Middle Section of Shi-Ji Avenue, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, People's Republic of China
| | - Ning Zhang
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 1 Middle Section of Shi-Ji Avenue, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Jing Wang
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 1 Middle Section of Shi-Ji Avenue, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, People's Republic of China
| | - Pei-Ran Lv
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 1 Middle Section of Shi-Ji Avenue, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, People's Republic of China.
| | - Qi Liu
- School of Acupuncture and Tuina, Shaanxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 1 Middle Section of Shi-Ji Avenue, Xianyang, Shaanxi, 712046, People's Republic of China.
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Liu W, Li H, Kämpfe Nordström C, Danckwardt-Lillieström N, Agrawal S, Ladak HM, Rask-Andersen H. Immuno-surveillance and protection of the human cochlea. Front Neurol 2024; 15:1355785. [PMID: 38817543 PMCID: PMC11137295 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2024.1355785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Despite its location near infection-prone areas, the human inner ear demonstrates remarkable resilience. This suggests that there are inherent instruments deterring the invasion and spread of pathogens into the inner ear. Here, we combined high-resolution light microscopy, super-resolution immunohistochemistry (SR-SIM) and synchrotron phase contrast imaging (SR-PCI) to identify the protection and barrier systems in the various parts of the human inner ear, focusing on the lateral wall, spiral ganglion, and endolymphatic sac. Materials and methods Light microscopy was conducted on mid-modiolar, semi-thin sections, after direct glutaraldehyde/osmium tetroxide fixation. The tonotopic locations were estimated using SR-PCI and 3D reconstruction in cadaveric specimens. The sections were analyzed for leucocyte and macrophage activity, and the results were correlated with immunohistochemistry using confocal microscopy and SR-SIM. Results Light microscopy revealed unprecedented preservation of cell anatomy and several macrophage-like cells that were localized in the cochlea. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated IBA1 cells frequently co-expressing MHC II in the spiral ganglion, nerve fibers, lateral wall, spiral limbus, and tympanic covering layer at all cochlear turns as well as in the endolymphatic sac. RNAscope assays revealed extensive expression of fractalkine gene transcripts in type I spiral ganglion cells. CD4 and CD8 cells occasionally surrounded blood vessels in the modiolus and lateral wall. TMEM119 and P2Y12 were not expressed, indicating that the cells labeled with IBA1 were not microglia. The round window niche, compact basilar membrane, and secondary spiral lamina may form protective shields in the cochlear base. Discussion The results suggest that the human cochlea is surveilled by dwelling and circulating immune cells. Resident and blood-borne macrophages may initiate protective immune responses via chemokine signaling in the lateral wall, spiral lamina, and spiral ganglion at different frequency locations. Synchrotron imaging revealed intriguing protective barriers in the base of the cochlea. The role of the endolymphatic sac in human inner ear innate and adaptive immunity is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hao Li
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Charlotta Kämpfe Nordström
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Sumit Agrawal
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Western University, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Western University, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Hanif M. Ladak
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Western University, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, Western University, London, ON, Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Helge Rask-Andersen
- Department of Surgical Sciences, Otorhinolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Sanabria-Castro A, Alape-Girón A, Flores-Díaz M, Echeverri-McCandless A, Parajeles-Vindas A. Oxidative stress involvement in the molecular pathogenesis and progression of multiple sclerosis: a literature review. Rev Neurosci 2024; 35:355-371. [PMID: 38163257 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2023-0091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune debilitating disease of the central nervous system caused by a mosaic of interactions between genetic predisposition and environmental factors. The pathological hallmarks of MS are chronic inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration. Oxidative stress, a state of imbalance between the production of reactive species and antioxidant defense mechanisms, is considered one of the key contributors in the pathophysiology of MS. This review is a comprehensive overview of the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which oxidant species contribute to the initiation and progression of MS including mitochondrial dysfunction, disruption of various signaling pathways, and autoimmune response activation. The detrimental effects of oxidative stress on neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes, as well as the role of oxidants in promoting and perpetuating inflammation, demyelination, and axonal damage, are discussed. Finally, this review also points out the therapeutic potential of various synthetic antioxidants that must be evaluated in clinical trials in patients with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Sanabria-Castro
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, San José, 10103, Costa Rica
- Departamento de Farmacología, Toxicología y Farmacodependencia, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro de Montes de Oca, 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Alberto Alape-Girón
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Dulce Nombre Vázquez de Coronado, 11103, Costa Rica
| | - Marietta Flores-Díaz
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, Dulce Nombre Vázquez de Coronado, 11103, Costa Rica
| | - Ann Echeverri-McCandless
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, San José, 10103, Costa Rica
| | - Alexander Parajeles-Vindas
- Servicio de Neurología, Hospital San Juan de Dios, Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, San José, 10103, Costa Rica
- Servicio de Neurología, Hospital Clínica Bíblica, San José, 10104, Costa Rica
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Maurya S, Lin M, Karnam S, Singh T, Kumar M, Ward E, Flanagan JG, Gronert K. Regulation of Diseases-Associated Microglia in the Optic Nerve by Lipoxin B 4 and Ocular Hypertension. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.18.585452. [PMID: 38562864 PMCID: PMC10983965 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.18.585452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Background The resident astrocyte-retinal ganglion cell (RGC) lipoxin circuit is impaired during retinal stress, which includes ocular hypertension-induced neuropathy. Lipoxin B4 produced by homeostatic astrocytes directly acts on RGCs to increase survival and function in ocular hypertension-induced neuropathy. RGC death in the retina and axonal degeneration in the optic nerve are driven by the complex interactions between microglia and macroglia. Whether LXB4 neuroprotective actions include regulation of other cell types in the retina and/or optic nerve is an important knowledge gap. Methods Cellular targets and signaling of LXB4 in the retina were defined by single-cell RNA sequencing. Retinal neurodegeneration was induced by injecting silicone oil into the anterior chamber of the mouse eyes, which induced sustained and stable ocular hypertension. Morphological characterization of microglia populations in the retina and optic nerve was established by MorphOMICs and pseudotime trajectory analyses. The pathways and mechanisms of action of LXB4 in the optic nerve were investigated using bulk RNA sequencing. Transcriptomics data was validated by qPCR and immunohistochemistry. Differences between experimental groups was assessed by Student's t-test and one-way ANOVA. Results Single-cell transcriptomics identified microglia as a primary target for LXB4 in the healthy retina. LXB4 downregulated genes that drive microglia environmental sensing and reactivity responses. Analysis of microglial function revealed that ocular hypertension induced distinct, temporally defined, and dynamic phenotypes in the retina and, unexpectedly, in the distal myelinated optic nerve. Microglial expression of CD74, a marker of disease-associated microglia in the brain, was only induced in a unique population of optic nerve microglia, but not in the retina. Genetic deletion of lipoxin formation correlated with the presence of a CD74 optic nerve microglia population in normotensive eyes, while LXB4 treatment during ocular hypertension shifted optic nerve microglia toward a homeostatic morphology and non-reactive state and downregulated the expression of CD74. Furthermore, we identified a correlation between CD74 and phospho-phosphoinositide 3-kinases (p-PI3K) expression levels in the optic nerve, which was reduced by LXB4 treatment. Conclusion We identified early and dynamic changes in the microglia functional phenotype, reactivity, and induction of a unique CD74 microglia population in the distal optic nerve as key features of ocular hypertension-induced neurodegeneration. Our findings establish microglia regulation as a novel LXB4 target in the retina and optic nerve. LXB4 maintenance of a homeostatic optic nerve microglia phenotype and inhibition of a disease-associated phenotype are potential neuroprotective mechanisms for the resident LXB4 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shubham Maurya
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Maggie Lin
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Shruthi Karnam
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Tanirika Singh
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Matangi Kumar
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Vision Science Program, University of California Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Emily Ward
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Vision Science Program, University of California Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - John G Flanagan
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Vision Science Program, University of California Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Karsten Gronert
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Vision Science Program, University of California Berkeley, CA, United States
- Infectious Disease and Immunity Program, University of California Berkeley, CA, United States
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Zhao H, Sun M, Zhang Y, Kong W, Fan L, Wang K, Xu Q, Chen B, Dong J, Shi Y, Wang Z, Wang S, Zhuang X, Li Q, Lin F, Yao X, Zhang W, Kong C, Zhang R, Feng D, Zhao X. Connecting the Dots: The Cerebral Lymphatic System as a Bridge Between the Central Nervous System and Peripheral System in Health and Disease. Aging Dis 2024; 15:115-152. [PMID: 37307828 PMCID: PMC10796102 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2023.0516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023] Open
Abstract
As a recently discovered waste removal system in the brain, cerebral lymphatic system is thought to play an important role in regulating the homeostasis of the central nervous system. Currently, more and more attention is being focused on the cerebral lymphatic system. Further understanding of the structural and functional characteristics of cerebral lymphatic system is essential to better understand the pathogenesis of diseases and to explore therapeutic approaches. In this review, we summarize the structural components and functional characteristics of cerebral lymphatic system. More importantly, it is closely associated with peripheral system diseases in the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidney. However, there is still a gap in the study of the cerebral lymphatic system. However, we believe that it is a critical mediator of the interactions between the central nervous system and the peripheral system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxiang Zhao
- Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China.
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Meiyan Sun
- Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China.
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Yue Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Wenwen Kong
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Lulu Fan
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Kaifang Wang
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Qing Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Baiyan Chen
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Jianxin Dong
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Yanan Shi
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Zhengyan Wang
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - ShiQi Wang
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Xiaoli Zhuang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Beijing Anzhen Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
| | - Qi Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
| | - Feihong Lin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Xinyu Yao
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.
| | - WenBo Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Children’s Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Chang Kong
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Tianjin Nankai Hospital, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China.
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
| | - Dayun Feng
- Department of neurosurgery, Tangdu hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China.
| | - Xiaoyong Zhao
- Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, China.
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
- Shandong Provincial Medicine and Health Key Laboratory of Clinical Anesthesia, School of Anesthesiology, Weifang Medical University, Weifang, China.
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Arsenault R, Marshall S, Salois P, Li Q, Zhang W. sTREM2 Differentially Affects Cytokine Expression in Myeloid-Derived Cell Models via MAPK-JNK Signaling Pathway. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:87. [PMID: 38392305 PMCID: PMC10886855 DOI: 10.3390/biology13020087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
TREM2 is a critical innate immune receptor primarily expressed on myeloid-derived cells, such as microglia and macrophages. Mutations in TREM2 are linked to several neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). TREM2 can be cleaved from the cell membrane and released as soluble TREM2 (sTREM2). sTREM2 levels are shown to peak prior to AD, with its levels fluctuating throughout disease progression. However, the mechanism by which sTREM2 may affect innate immune responses is largely uncharacterized. In this study, we investigated whether sTREM2 can induce inflammatory response in myeloid-derived THP-1 monocytes and macrophages and characterized the signaling mechanisms involved. Our results show that sTREM2 was capable of stimulating the expression of several inflammatory cytokines in THP-1 cells throughout the time course of 2 h to 8 h but inducing anti-inflammatory cytokine expression at later time points. A TREM2 antibody was capable of inhibiting the expression of some cytokines induced by sTREM2 but enhancing others. The complex of sTREM2/TREM2 antibody was shown to enhance IL-1β expression, which was partially blocked by an NLRP3 specific inhibitor, indicating that the complex activated the NRLP3 inflammasome pathway. sTREM2 was also shown to have differential effects on cytokine expression in M0, M1, and M2 macrophages differentiated from THP-1 cells. sTREM2 has a more stimulating effect on cytokine expression in M0 macrophages, less of an effect on M2 macrophages, and some inhibitory effects on cytokine expression in M1 macrophages at early time points. Analyses of several signaling pathways revealed that sTREM2-induced expression of cytokines occurs mainly through MAPK-JNK signaling. Our work reveals differential effects of sTREM2 on cytokine expression profiles of THP-1 cells and macrophages and demonstrates that the MAPK-JNK signaling pathway is mainly responsible for sTREM2-induced cytokine expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Arsenault
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Steven Marshall
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Patrick Salois
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Qiao Li
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Wandong Zhang
- Human Health Therapeutics Research Centre, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
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Yadav I, Kumar R, Fatima Z, Rema V. Ocimum sanctum [Tulsi] as a Potential Immunomodulator for the Treatment of Ischemic Injury in the Brain. Curr Mol Med 2024; 24:60-73. [PMID: 36515030 DOI: 10.2174/1566524023666221212155340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Stroke causes brain damage and is one of the main reasons for death. Most survivors of stroke face long-term physical disabilities and cognitive dysfunctions. In addition, they also have persistent emotional and behavioral changes. The two main treatments that are effective are reperfusion with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator and recanalization of penumbra using mechanical thrombectomy. However, these treatments are suitable only for a few patients due to limitations such as susceptibility to hemorrhage and the requirement for administering tissue plasminogen activators within the short therapeutic window during the early hours following a stroke. The paucity of interventions and treatments could be because of the multiple pathological mechanisms induced in the brain by stroke. The ongoing immune response following stroke has been attributed to the worsening brain injury. Hence, novel compounds with immunomodulatory properties that could improve the outcome of stroke patients are required. Natural compounds and medicinal herbs with anti-inflammatory activities and having minimal or no adverse systemic effect could be beneficial in treating stroke. Ocimum sanctum is a medicinal herb that can be considered an effective therapeutic option for ischemic brain injury. Ocimum sanctum, commonly known as holy basil or "Tulsi," is mentioned as the "Elixir of Life" for its healing powers. Since antiquity, Tulsi has been used in the Ayurvedic and Siddha medical systems to treat several diseases. It possesses immuno-modulatory activity, which can alter cellular and humoral immune responses. Tulsi can be considered a potential option as an immuno-modulator for treating various diseases, including brain stroke. In this review, we will focus on the immunomodulatory properties of Tulsi, specifically its effect on both innate and adaptive immunity, as well as its antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties, which could potentially be effective in treating ongoing immune reactions following ischemic brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inderjeet Yadav
- National Brain Research Centre [NBRC], Manesar, Haryana, 122052, India
| | - Ravi Kumar
- National Brain Research Centre [NBRC], Manesar, Haryana, 122052, India
| | - Zeeshan Fatima
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia
- Amity Institute of Biotechno logy, Amity University Haryana, Gurugram (Manesar)-122413, India
| | - Velayudhan Rema
- National Brain Research Centre [NBRC], Manesar, Haryana, 122052, India
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Vincow ES, Thomas RE, Milstein G, Pareek G, Bammler T, MacDonald J, Pallanck L. Glucocerebrosidase deficiency leads to neuropathology via cellular immune activation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.12.13.571406. [PMID: 38168223 PMCID: PMC10760128 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.13.571406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Mutations in GBA (glucosylceramidase beta), which encodes the lysosomal enzyme glucocerebrosidase (GCase), are the strongest genetic risk factor for the neurodegenerative disorders Parkinson's disease (PD) and Lewy body dementia. Recent work has suggested that neuroinflammation may be an important factor in the risk conferred by GBA mutations. We therefore systematically tested the contributions of immune-related genes to neuropathology in a Drosophila model of GCase deficiency. We identified target immune factors via RNA-Seq and proteomics on heads from GCase-deficient flies, which revealed both increased abundance of humoral factors and increased macrophage activation. We then manipulated the identified immune factors and measured their effect on head protein aggregates, a hallmark of neurodegenerative disease. Genetic ablation of humoral (secreted) immune factors did not suppress the development of protein aggregation. By contrast, re-expressing Gba1b in activated macrophages suppressed head protein aggregation in Gba1b mutants and rescued their lifespan and behavioral deficits. Moreover, reducing the GCase substrate glucosylceramide in activated macrophages also ameliorated Gba1b mutant phenotypes. Taken together, our findings show that glucosylceramide accumulation due to GCase deficiency leads to macrophage activation, which in turn promotes the development of neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn S. Vincow
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Ruth E. Thomas
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Gillian Milstein
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Gautam Pareek
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Theo Bammler
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - James MacDonald
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Leo Pallanck
- Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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Tomiyama ALMR, Cartarozzi LP, de Oliveira Coser L, Chiarotto GB, Oliveira ALR. Neuroprotection by upregulation of the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) in SOD1 G93A mice. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1211486. [PMID: 37711512 PMCID: PMC10498468 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1211486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disease that progressively affects motoneurons, causing muscle atrophy and evolving to death. Astrocytes inhibit the expression of MHC-I by neurons, contributing to a degenerative outcome. The present study verified the influence of interferon β (IFN β) treatment, a proinflammatory cytokine that upregulates MHC-I expression, in SOD1G93A transgenic mice. For that, 17 days old presymptomatic female mice were subjected to subcutaneous application of IFN β (250, 1,000, and 10,000 IU) every other day for 20 days. Rotarod motor test, clinical score, and body weight assessment were conducted every third day throughout the treatment period. No significant intergroup variations were observed in such parameters during the pre-symptomatic phase. All mice were then euthanized, and the spinal cords collected for comparative analysis of motoneuron survival, reactive gliosis, synapse coverage, microglia morphology classification, cytokine analysis by flow cytometry, and RT-qPCR quantification of gene transcripts. Additionally, mice underwent Rotarod motor assessment, weight monitoring, and neurological scoring. The results show that IFN β treatment led to an increase in the expression of MHC-I, which, even at the lowest dose (250 IU), resulted in a significant increase in neuronal survival in the ALS presymptomatic period which lasted until the onset of the disease. The treatment also influenced synaptic preservation by decreasing excitatory inputs and upregulating the expression of AMPA receptors by astrocytes. Microglial reactivity quantified by the integrated density of pixels did not decrease with treatment but showed a less activated morphology, coupled with polarization to an M1 profile. Disease progression upregulated gene transcripts for pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and IFN β treatment significantly decreased mRNA expression for IL4. Overall, the present results demonstrate that a low dosage of IFN β shows therapeutic potential by increasing MHC-I expression, resulting in neuroprotection and immunomodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Alexandre L. R. Oliveira
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biology—University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil
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11
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Cheng Y, Javonillo DI, Pachow C, Scarfone VM, Fernandez K, Walsh CM, Green KN, Lane TE. Ablation of microglia following infection of the central nervous system with a neurotropic murine coronavirus infection leads to increased demyelination and impaired remyelination. J Neuroimmunol 2023; 381:578133. [PMID: 37352687 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2023.578133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2023]
Abstract
Intracranial inoculation of susceptible mice with a glial-tropic strain of mouse hepatitis virus (JHMV), a murine coronavirus, results in an acute encephalomyelitis followed by viral persistence in white matter tracts accompanied by chronic neuroinflammation and demyelination. Microglia are the resident immune cell of the central nervous system (CNS) and are considered important in regulating events associated with neuroinflammation as well as influencing both white matter damage and remyelination. To better understand mechanisms by which microglia contribute to these immune-mediated events, JHMV-infected mice with established demyelination were treated with the small molecular inhibitor of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), PLX5622, to deplete microglia. Treatment with PLX5622 did not affect viral replication within the CNS yet the severity of demyelination was increased and remyelination impaired compared to control mice. Gene expression analysis revealed that targeting microglia resulted in altered expression of genes associated with immune cell activation and phagocytosis of myelin debris. These findings indicate that microglia are not critical in viral surveillance in persistently JHMV-infected mice yet restrict white matter damage and remyelination, in part, by influencing phagocytosis of myelin debris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Cheng
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
| | - Dominic Ibarra Javonillo
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
| | - Collin Pachow
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
| | - Vanessa M Scarfone
- Sue & Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
| | - Kellie Fernandez
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
| | - Craig M Walsh
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
| | - Kim N Green
- Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA
| | - Thomas E Lane
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA; Department of Neurobiology & Behavior, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA; Center for Virus Research, University of California, Irvine 92697, USA.
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12
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Tichauer JE, Arellano G, Acuña E, González LF, Kannaiyan NR, Murgas P, Panadero-Medianero C, Ibañez-Vega J, Burgos PI, Loda E, Miller SD, Rossner MJ, Gebicke-Haerter PJ, Naves R. Interferon-gamma ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by inducing homeostatic adaptation of microglia. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1191838. [PMID: 37334380 PMCID: PMC10272814 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1191838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Compelling evidence has shown that interferon (IFN)-γ has dual effects in multiple sclerosis and in its animal model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), with results supporting both a pathogenic and beneficial function. However, the mechanisms whereby IFN-γ may promote neuroprotection in EAE and its effects on central nervous system (CNS)-resident cells have remained an enigma for more than 30 years. In this study, the impact of IFN-γ at the peak of EAE, its effects on CNS infiltrating myeloid cells (MC) and microglia (MG), and the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms were investigated. IFN-γ administration resulted in disease amelioration and attenuation of neuroinflammation associated with significantly lower frequencies of CNS CD11b+ myeloid cells and less infiltration of inflammatory cells and demyelination. A significant reduction in activated MG and enhanced resting MG was determined by flow cytometry and immunohistrochemistry. Primary MC/MG cultures obtained from the spinal cord of IFN-γ-treated EAE mice that were ex vivo re-stimulated with a low dose (1 ng/ml) of IFN-γ and neuroantigen, promoted a significantly higher induction of CD4+ regulatory T (Treg) cells associated with increased transforming growth factor (TGF)-β secretion. Additionally, IFN-γ-treated primary MC/MG cultures produced significantly lower nitrite in response to LPS challenge than control MC/MG. IFN-γ-treated EAE mice had a significantly higher frequency of CX3CR1high MC/MG and expressed lower levels of program death ligand 1 (PD-L1) than PBS-treated mice. Most CX3CR1highPD-L1lowCD11b+Ly6G- cells expressed MG markers (Tmem119, Sall2, and P2ry12), indicating that they represented an enriched MG subset (CX3CR1highPD-L1low MG). Amelioration of clinical symptoms and induction of CX3CR1highPD-L1low MG by IFN-γ were dependent on STAT-1. RNA-seq analyses revealed that in vivo treatment with IFN-γ promoted the induction of homeostatic CX3CR1highPD-L1low MG, upregulating the expression of genes associated with tolerogenic and anti-inflammatory roles and down-regulating pro-inflammatory genes. These analyses highlight the master role that IFN-γ plays in regulating microglial activity and provide new insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the therapeutic activity of IFN-γ in EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan E. Tichauer
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Gabriel Arellano
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Eric Acuña
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis F. González
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Nirmal R. Kannaiyan
- Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Paola Murgas
- Center for Integrative Biology, Faculty of Science, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Jorge Ibañez-Vega
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Paula I. Burgos
- Department of Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology , School of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eileah Loda
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Stephen D. Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Moritz J. Rossner
- Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Peter J. Gebicke-Haerter
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rodrigo Naves
- Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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13
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Thomas SD, Jha NK, Ojha S, Sadek B. mTOR Signaling Disruption and Its Association with the Development of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041889. [PMID: 36838876 PMCID: PMC9964164 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication along with repetitive stereotypic behaviors. Currently, there are no specific biomarkers for diagnostic screening or treatments available for autistic patients. Numerous genetic disorders are associated with high prevalence of ASD, including tuberous sclerosis complex, phosphatase and tensin homolog, and fragile X syndrome. Preclinical investigations in animal models of these diseases have revealed irregularities in the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway as well as ASD-related behavioral defects. Reversal of the downstream molecular irregularities, associated with mTOR hyperactivation, improved the behavioral deficits observed in the preclinical investigations. Plant bioactive molecules have shown beneficial pre-clinical evidence in ASD treatment by modulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. In this review, we summarize the involvement of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway as well as the genetic alterations of the pathway components and its critical impact on the development of the autism spectrum disorder. Mutations in negative regulators of mTORC1, such as TSC1, TSC2, and PTEN, result in ASD-like phenotypes through the disruption of the mTORC1-mediated signaling. We further discuss the various naturally occurring phytoconstituents that have been identified to be bioactive and modulate the pathway to prevent its disruption and contribute to beneficial therapeutic effects in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilu Deepa Thomas
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Zayed Bin Sultan Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Niraj Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology (SET), Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, India
- School of Bioengineering & Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara 144411, India
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied & Life Sciences (SALS), Uttaranchal University, Dehradun 248007, India
| | - Shreesh Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Zayed Bin Sultan Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Bassem Sadek
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Zayed Bin Sultan Center for Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
- Correspondence:
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14
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Maurya SK, Gupta S, Mishra R. Transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of microglia in maintenance of brain homeostasis and neurodegeneration. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 15:1072046. [PMID: 36698776 PMCID: PMC9870594 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1072046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The emerging role of microglia in brain homeostasis, neurodegeneration, and neurodevelopmental disorders has attracted considerable interest. In addition, recent developments in microglial functions and associated pathways have shed new light on their fundamental role in the immunological surveillance of the brain. Understanding the interconnections between microglia, neurons, and non-neuronal cells have opened up additional avenues for research in this evolving field. Furthermore, the study of microglia at the transcriptional and epigenetic levels has enhanced our knowledge of these native brain immune cells. Moreover, exploring various facets of microglia biology will facilitate the early detection, treatment, and management of neurological disorders. Consequently, the present review aimed to provide comprehensive insight on microglia biology and its influence on brain development, homeostasis, management of disease, and highlights microglia as potential therapeutic targets in neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashank Kumar Maurya
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India,*Correspondence: Shashank Kumar Maurya, ;
| | - Suchi Gupta
- Tech Cell Innovations Private Limited, Centre for Medical Innovation and Entrepreneurship (CMIE), All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Rajnikant Mishra
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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15
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Shinoda Y, Akiyama M, Toyama T. Potential Association between Methylmercury Neurotoxicity and Inflammation. Biol Pharm Bull 2023; 46:1162-1168. [PMID: 37661394 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b23-00075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Methylmercury (MeHg) is the causal substrate of Minamata disease and a major environmental toxicant. MeHg is widely distributed, mainly in the ocean, meaning its bioaccumulation in seafood is a considerable problem for human health. MeHg has been intensively investigated and is known to induce inflammatory responses and neurodegeneration. However, the relationship between MeHg-induced inflammatory responses and neurodegeneration is not understood. In the present review, we first describe recent findings showing an association between inflammatory responses and certain MeHg-unrelated neurological diseases caused by neurodegeneration. In addition, cell-specific MeHg-induced inflammatory responses are summarized for the central nervous system including those of microglia, astrocytes, and neurons. We also describe MeHg-induced inflammatory responses in peripheral cells and tissue, such as macrophages and blood. These findings provide a concept of the relationship between MeHg-induced inflammatory responses and neurodegeneration, as well as direction for future research of MeHg-induced neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yo Shinoda
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Pharmacy, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences
| | - Masahiro Akiyama
- Research Center for Drug Discovery, Faculty of Pharmacy and Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Keio University
| | - Takashi Toyama
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Metabolism, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University
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16
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Flores JJ, Ding Y, Sherchan P, Zhang JH, Tang J. Annexin A1 upregulates hematoma resolution via the FPR2/p-ERK(1/2)/DUSP1/CD36 signaling pathway after germinal matrix hemorrhage. Exp Neurol 2023; 359:114257. [PMID: 36279933 PMCID: PMC10681750 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Germinal matrix hemorrhage (GMH) is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants in the United States, with little progress made in its clinical management. Blood clots disrupting normal cerebrospinal fluid circulation and absorption after germinal matrix hemorrhage are key contributors towards post-hemorrhagic hydrocephalus development. n-formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2), a G-protein-coupled receptor, has been associated with the activation of p-ERK1/2, which in turn promotes the transcription of the DUSP1 gene, which may play a role in CD36 signaling. CD36 scavenger, a transmembrane glycoprotein, plays an essential role in microglia phagocytic blood clot clearance after GMH. FPR2's role in blood clot clearance after hemorrhagic stroke is unknown. We hypothesize that FPR2 activation by FPR2 agonist Annexin A1 (AnxA1) will enhance hematoma resolution via the upregulation of the CD36 signaling pathway, thereby improving short- and long-term neurological outcomes. Bacterial collagenase (0.3 U) was infused intraparenchymally into the right hemispheric ganglionic eminence in P7 rat pups to induce GMH. AnxA1 and FPR2 Inhibitor (Boc2) were given at 1-h post-GMH via intranasal administration. FPR2 CRISPR was given 48-h prior to GMH induction. Short-term neurological deficits were assessed using negative geotaxis test. Hematoma volume was assessed using hemoglobin assay. Protein expression was assessed using western blots. Long-term neurocognitive deficits and motor coordination were assessed using Morris water maze, rotarod, and foot fault tests. We have demonstrated that AnxA1 treatment enhances hematoma resolution and improved short and long-term outcomes. Lastly, FPR2 agonist AnxA1 treatment resulted in the upregulation of the FPR2/p-ERK(1/2)/DUSP1/CD36 signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry J Flores
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Yan Ding
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Prativa Sherchan
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA; Departments of Anesthesiology and Neurosurgery, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - Jiping Tang
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, CA, USA.
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17
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Cao Y, Zhu S, Yu B, Yao C. Single-cell RNA sequencing for traumatic spinal cord injury. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22656. [PMID: 36374259 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202200943r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI) is a severe injury of the central nervous system (CNS) with complicated pathological microenvironment that results in hemorrhage, inflammation, and scar formation. The microenvironment of the injured spinal cord comprises heterogeneous neurons, glial cells, inflammatory cells, and stroma-related cells. Increasing evidence has indicated that the altered cellular and molecular microenvironment following tSCI is a key factor impeding functional recovery. Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) has provided deep insights into the dynamic cellular and molecular changes in the microenvironment by comprehensively characterizing the diversity of spinal cord cell types. Specifically, scRNA-seq enables the exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying tSCI by elucidating intercellular communication in spinal cord samples between normal and injury conditions at a single-cell resolution. Here, we first described the pathological and physiological processes after tSCI and gave a brief introduction of the scRNA-seq technology. We then focused on the recent scRNA-seq researches in tSCI, which characterized diverse cell-type populations and specific cell-cell interactions in tSCI. In addition, we also highlighted some potential directions for the research of scRNA-seq in tSCI in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Cao
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Shunxing Zhu
- Laboratory Animals Center, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Bin Yu
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Chun Yao
- Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, China
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Maurya SK, Mishra R. Co-expression and Interaction of Pax6 with Genes and Proteins of Immunological Surveillance in the Brain of Mice. Neurotox Res 2022; 40:2238-2252. [PMID: 36069979 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-022-00562-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The Pax6 binds to promoter sequence elements of genes involved in immunological surveillance and interacts with Iba1, p53, Ras-GAP, and Sparc in the brain of mice. The Pax6 also affects the expression pattern of genes involved in neurogenesis and neurodegeneration. However, the expression and association of Pax6 in the brain under immunologically challenged conditions are still elusive. Therefore, it has been intended to analyze the association of Pax6 in the immunity of the brain using the immune-challenged Dalton's lymphoma (DL) mice model. The expressions of Pax6, Iba1, and Tmem119 decreased, but expressions of Ifn-γ, Tnf-α, Bdnf, and Tgf-β increased in the brain of immune-challenged mice as compared to the control. The level of co-expression of Pax6 decreased in dual positive cells with Iba1, Tmem119, Sparc, p53, Bdnf, and Tgf-β in the brain of immune-challenged mice. Binding of Pax6 to multiple sites of the promoter sequences of Bdnf and Tgf-β indicates their Pax6-associated differential expression and association with immune responsive gene. The levels of binding of Pax6 to Tmem119, Iba1, Ifn-γ, and Tnf-α got altered during the immune-challenged state as compared to control. Results provide the first evidence of the association of Pax6 in brain-specific immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashank Kumar Maurya
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
- Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Rajnikant Mishra
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
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19
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Chowdhury S, Trivedi AK. Origin, production and molecular determinants of macrophages for their therapeutic targeting. Cell Biol Int 2022; 47:15-29. [PMID: 36183367 DOI: 10.1002/cbin.11914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages, the most heterogeneous cells of the hematopoietic system and the giant eaters of the immune system that present either as tissue-resident cells or infiltrated immune cells, eliminate foreign pathogens and microbes and also play different physiological roles to maintain the body's immune response. In this review, we basically provide a broad overview of macrophages from their origin, functional diversity to M1-M2 polarization, specialized markers, and their role as important therapeutic targets in different diseases based on the current research and evidence. Apart from this, we have precisely discussed about tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and their role in tumor progression and newly discovered lesser-known markers of TAMs that could be used as potential therapeutic targets to treat life-threatening diseases. It is really very important to understand the diversity of macrophages to develop TAM-modulating strategies to activate our own immune system against diseases and to overcome immune resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangita Chowdhury
- LSS008 Division of Cancer Biology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
| | - Arun K Trivedi
- LSS008 Division of Cancer Biology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, India
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20
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Naeem AG, El-Naga RN, Michel HE. Nebivolol elicits a neuroprotective effect in the cuprizone model of multiple sclerosis in mice: emphasis on M1/M2 polarization and inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Inflammopharmacology 2022; 30:2197-2209. [PMID: 35948811 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-022-01045-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating neurodegenerative inflammatory disease affecting mainly young adults. Microgliosis-derived neuroinflammation represents a key hallmark in MS pathology and progression. Nebivolol (Neb) demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties in several brain pathologies. This study was conducted to investigate the potential neuroprotective effect of Neb in the cuprizone (Cup) model of MS. METHODS C57Bl/6 mice were fed 0.2% Cup mixed into rodent chow for 5 weeks. Neb (5 and 10 mg/kg/day) was administered by oral gavage during the last 2 weeks. RESULTS Neb prevented Cup-induced weight loss and motor deficits as evidenced by increased latency to fall in the rotarod test and enhanced locomotor activity as compared to Cup-intoxicated mice. Neb reversed Cup-induced demyelination as confirmed by Luxol fast blue staining and myelin basic protein western blotting. Administration of Neb modulated microglial activation status by suppressing M1 markers (Iba-1, CD86, iNOS, NO and TNF-α) and increasing M2 markers (Arg-1 and IL-10) as compared to Cup-fed mice. Furthermore, Neb hindered NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-18 inflammatory cascade and alleviated oxidative stress by reducing lipid peroxidation, as well as increasing catalase and superoxide dismutase activities. CONCLUSION These findings suggest the potential neuroprotective effect of Neb in the Cup-induced model of MS in mice, at least partially by virtue of shifting microglia towards M2 phenotype, mitigation of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and alleviation of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoinette G Naeem
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Reem N El-Naga
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Haidy E Michel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
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21
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Sargazi S, Siddiqui B, Qindeel M, Rahdar A, Bilal M, Behzadmehr R, Mirinejad S, Pandey S. Chitosan nanocarriers for microRNA delivery and detection: A preliminary review with emphasis on cancer. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 290:119489. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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22
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Trinh PNH, Baltos JA, Hellyer SD, May LT, Gregory KJ. Adenosine receptor signalling in Alzheimer’s disease. Purinergic Signal 2022; 18:359-381. [PMID: 35870032 PMCID: PMC9391555 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-022-09883-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common dementia in the elderly and its increasing prevalence presents treatment challenges. Despite a better understanding of the disease, the current mainstay of treatment cannot modify pathogenesis or effectively address the associated cognitive and memory deficits. Emerging evidence suggests adenosine G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are promising therapeutic targets for Alzheimer’s disease. The adenosine A1 and A2A receptors are expressed in the human brain and have a proposed involvement in the pathogenesis of dementia. Targeting these receptors preclinically can mitigate pathogenic β-amyloid and tau neurotoxicity whilst improving cognition and memory. In this review, we provide an accessible summary of the literature on Alzheimer’s disease and the therapeutic potential of A1 and A2A receptors. Although there are no available medicines targeting these receptors approved for treating dementia, we provide insights into some novel strategies, including allosterism and the targeting of oligomers, which may increase drug discovery success and enhance the therapeutic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phuc N. H. Trinh
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
| | - Jo-Anne Baltos
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
| | - Shane D. Hellyer
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
| | - Lauren T. May
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
| | - Karen J. Gregory
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Parkville, VIC 3052 Australia
- ARC Centre for Cryo-Electron Microscopy of Membrane Proteins, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, 3052 Australia
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23
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Modulating Microglia/Macrophage Activation by CDNF Promotes Transplantation of Fetal Ventral Mesencephalic Graft Survival and Function in a Hemiparkinsonian Rat Model. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10061446. [PMID: 35740467 PMCID: PMC9221078 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10061446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta, which leads to the motor control deficits. Recently, cell transplantation is a cutting-edge technique for the therapy of PD. Nevertheless, one key bottleneck to realizing such potential is allogenic immune reaction of tissue grafts by recipients. Cerebral dopamine neurotrophic factor (CDNF) was shown to possess immune-modulatory properties that benefit neurodegenerative diseases. We hypothesized that co-administration of CDNF with fetal ventral mesencephalic (VM) tissue can improve the success of VM replacement therapies by attenuating immune responses. Hemiparkinsonian rats were generated by injecting 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the right medial forebrain bundle of Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. The rats were then intrastriatally transplanted with VM tissue from rats, with/without CDNF administration. Recovery of dopaminergic function and survival of the grafts were evaluated using the apomorphine-induced rotation test and small-animal positron emission tomography (PET) coupled with [18F] DOPA or [18F] FE-PE2I, respectively. In addition, transplantation-related inflammatory response was determined by uptake of [18F] FEPPA in the grafted side of striatum. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) examination was used to determine the survival of the grated dopaminergic neurons in the striatum and to investigate immune-modulatory effects of CDNF. The modulation of inflammatory responses caused by CDNF might involve enhancing M2 subset polarization and increasing fractal dimensions of 6-OHDA-treated BV2 microglial cell line. Analysis of CDNF-induced changes to gene expressions of 6-OHDA-stimulated BV2 cells implies that these alternations of the biomarkers and microglial morphology are implicated in the upregulation of protein kinase B signaling as well as regulation of catalytic, transferase, and protein serine/threonine kinase activity. The effects of CDNF on 6-OHDA-induced alternation of the canonical pathway in BV2 microglial cells is highly associated with PI3K-mediated phagosome formation. Our results are the first to show that CDNF administration enhances the survival of the grafted dopaminergic neurons and improves functional recovery in PD animal model. Modulation of the polarization, morphological characteristics, and transcriptional profiles of 6-OHDA-stimualted microglia by CDNF may possess these properties in transplantation-based regenerative therapies.
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24
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Maurya SK, Mishra R. Molecular docking studies of natural immunomodulators indicate their interactions with the CD40L of CD40/CD40L pathway and CSF1R kinase domain of microglia. J Mol Model 2022; 28:101. [PMID: 35325302 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-022-05084-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Natural products have proved beneficial in reducing neuroinflammation in neurological diseases. Their impacts have also been associated with the activities of microglia, responsible for brain-specific immunity. Recent studies have shown the involvement of the number of microglia-specific proteins in the regulation of brain-specific immunity. However, molecular targets of natural products and their mechanism of interaction with microglia-specific proteins are elusive. Since the genetic signature of microglia offers many potential targets for drug discovery, molecular docking followed by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of cluster of differentiation 40 ligand (CD40L) and colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) kinase domain protein with some known neuro-immunomodulators (Curcumin, Cannabidiol, Ginsenoside Rg1, Resveratrol, and Sulforaphane) has been evaluated. Curcumin and cannabidiol were observed likely to modulate CD40L and expression of cytokines and entry of inflammatory cells. Resveratrol and cannabidiol may affect the CSF1R kinase domain and activation of microglia. Our finding suggests that curcumin, cannabidiol, and resveratrol may serve specific drug ligands in regulating microglia-mediated brain immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashank Kumar Maurya
- Department of Zoology, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, 110007, Delhi, India.,Department of Zoology, School of Sciences, Cluster University of Jammu, 180001, Jammu, India.,Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India
| | - Rajnikant Mishra
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, 221005, Varanasi, India.
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25
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Abstract
The heart is a never-stopping engine that relies on a formidable pool of mitochondria to generate energy and propel pumping. Because dying cardiomyocytes cannot be replaced, this high metabolic rate creates the challenge of preserving organelle fitness and cell function for life. Here, we provide an immunologist's perspective on how the heart solves this challenge, which is in part by incorporating macrophages as an integral component of the myocardium. Cardiac macrophages surround cardiomyocytes and capture dysfunctional mitochondria that these cells eject to the milieu, effectively establishing a client cell-support cell interaction. We refer to this heterologous partnership as heterophagy. Notably, this process shares analogies with other biological systems, is essential for proteostasis and metabolic fitness of cardiomyocytes, and unveils a remarkable degree of dependence of the healthy heart on immune cells for everyday function.
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Affiliation(s)
- José A Nicolás-Ávila
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III, Spain (J.A.N.-A., L.P.-C., P.M.-C., A.H.)
| | - Laura Pena-Couso
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III, Spain (J.A.N.-A., L.P.-C., P.M.-C., A.H.)
| | - Pura Muñoz-Cánoves
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III, Spain (J.A.N.-A., L.P.-C., P.M.-C., A.H.).,Department of Experimental & Health Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, CIBERNED, Spain (P.M.-C.).,ICREA, Spain (P.M.-C.)
| | - Andrés Hidalgo
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III, Spain (J.A.N.-A., L.P.-C., P.M.-C., A.H.)
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26
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Mallach A, Gobom J, Arber C, Piers TM, Hardy J, Wray S, Zetterberg H, Pocock J. Differential Stimulation of Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Human Microglia Leads to Exosomal Proteomic Changes Affecting Neurons. Cells 2021; 10:cells10112866. [PMID: 34831089 PMCID: PMC8616378 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglial exosomes are an emerging communication pathway, implicated in fulfilling homeostatic microglial functions and transmitting neurodegenerative signals. Gene variants of triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-2 (TREM2) are associated with an increased risk of developing dementia. We investigated the influence of the TREM2 Alzheimer’s disease risk variant, R47Hhet, on the microglial exosomal proteome consisting of 3019 proteins secreted from human iPS-derived microglia (iPS-Mg). Exosomal protein content changed according to how the iPS-Mg were stimulated. Thus lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced microglial exosomes to contain more inflammatory signals, whilst stimulation with the TREM2 ligand phosphatidylserine (PS+) increased metabolic signals within the microglial exosomes. We tested the effect of these exosomes on neurons and found that the exosomal protein changes were functionally relevant and influenced downstream functions in both neurons and microglia. Exosomes from R47Hhet iPS-Mg contained disease-associated microglial (DAM) signature proteins and were less able to promote the outgrowth of neuronal processes and increase mitochondrial metabolism in neurons compared with exosomes from the common TREM2 variant iPS-Mg. Taken together, these data highlight the importance of microglial exosomes in fulfilling microglial functions. Additionally, variations in the exosomal proteome influenced by the R47Hhet TREM2 variant may underlie the increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease associated with this variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Mallach
- Department of Neuroinflammation, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College, London WC1N 1PJ, UK; (A.M.); (T.M.P.)
| | - Johan Gobom
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, S-43180 Molndal, Sweden; (J.G.); (H.Z.)
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, S-431 80 Molndal, Sweden
| | - Charles Arber
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, UK; (C.A.); (J.H.); (S.W.)
| | - Thomas M. Piers
- Department of Neuroinflammation, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College, London WC1N 1PJ, UK; (A.M.); (T.M.P.)
| | - John Hardy
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, UK; (C.A.); (J.H.); (S.W.)
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Selina Wray
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, UK; (C.A.); (J.H.); (S.W.)
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurochemistry, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, S-43180 Molndal, Sweden; (J.G.); (H.Z.)
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, S-431 80 Molndal, Sweden
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N 1PJ, UK; (C.A.); (J.H.); (S.W.)
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Jennifer Pocock
- Department of Neuroinflammation, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College, London WC1N 1PJ, UK; (A.M.); (T.M.P.)
- Correspondence:
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27
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Ishikawa Y, Furuyashiki T. The impact of stress on immune systems and its relevance to mental illness. Neurosci Res 2021; 175:16-24. [PMID: 34606943 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2021.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Stress due to adverse and demanding conditions alters immune functions. How innate and adaptive immune systems respond to stress and affect neural processes remains unclear. Rodent studies have demonstrated crucial roles of stress-induced immune responses for depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors. In the periphery, stress evokes the mobilization of neutrophils and monocytes to the circulation via sympathetic nerves and glucocorticoids. These myeloid cells are thought to promote depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors by infiltrating the brain's perivascular space, releasing cytokines, and affecting vascular endothelial functions. In the brain, stress activates microglia via innate immune receptors TLR2/4. The activated microglia in the medial prefrontal cortex secrete cytokines and alter neuronal morphology and activity in their vicinity. In subcortical brain areas, prostaglandin (PG) E2 released from the activated microglia attenuates the dopaminergic projection to the medial prefrontal cortex via PGE receptor EP1. These multiple actions of microglia promote depressive-like behavior in concert. These rodent findings may be translatable to depression that clinical studies have associated with brain and peripheral inflammations. Understanding causal relationships between immune and neural alterations under stress might be exploitable to develop inflammation-targeting therapeutics for mental illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Ishikawa
- Division of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan; Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Tomoyuki Furuyashiki
- Division of Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan; Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Tokyo, Japan.
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28
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Type 1 interferon mediates chronic stress-induced neuroinflammation and behavioral deficits via complement component 3-dependent pathway. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:3043-3059. [PMID: 33833372 PMCID: PMC8497654 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01065-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronic stress is a major risk factor in the pathophysiology of many neuropsychiatric disorders. Further, chronic stress conditions can promote neuroinflammation and inflammatory responses in both humans and animal models. Type I interferons (IFN-I) are critical mediators of the inflammatory response in the periphery and responsible for the altered mood and behavior. However, the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. In the present study, we investigated the role of IFN-I signaling in chronic stress-induced changes in neuroinflammation and behavior. Using the chronic restraint stress model, we found that chronic stress induces a significant increase in serum IFNβ levels in mice, and systemic blockade of IFN-I signaling attenuated chronic stress-induced infiltration of macrophages into prefrontal cortex and behavioral abnormalities. Furthermore, complement component 3 (C3) mediates systemic IFNβ-induced changes in neuroinflammation and behavior. Also, we found significant increases in the mRNA expression levels of IFN-I stimulated genes in the prefrontal cortex of depressed suicide subjects and significant correlation with C3 and inflammatory markers. Together, these findings from animal and human postmortem brain studies identify a crucial role of C3 in IFN-I-mediated changes in neuroinflammation and behavior under chronic stress conditions.
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29
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Hajinejad M, Sahab-Negah S. Neuroinflammation: The next target of exosomal microRNAs derived from mesenchymal stem cells in the context of neurological disorders. J Cell Physiol 2021; 236:8070-8081. [PMID: 34189724 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Among different types of mechanisms involved in neurological disorders, neuroinflammation links initial insults to secondary injuries and triggers some chronic outcomes, for example, neurodegenerative disorders. Thus, anti-inflammatory substances can be targeted as a novel therapeutic option for translational and clinical research to improve brain disease outcomes. In this review, we propose to introduce a new insight into the anti-inflammatory effects of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as the most frequent source for stem cell therapy in neurological diseases. Our insight incorporates a bystander effect of these stem cells in modulating inflammation and microglia/macrophage polarization through exosomes. Exosomes are nano-sized membrane vesicles that carry cell-specific constituents, including protein, lipid, DNA, and RNA. microRNAs (miRNAs) have recently been detected in exosomes that can be taken up by other cells and affect the behavior of recipient cells. In this article, we outline and highlight the potential use of exosomal miRNAs derived from MSCs for inflammatory pathways in the context of neurological disorders. Furthermore, we suggest that focusing on exosomal miRNAs derived from MSCs in the course of neuroinflammatory pathways in the future could reveal their functions for diverse neurological diseases, including brain injuries and neurodegenerative diseases. It is hoped that this study will contribute to a deep understanding of stem cell bystander effects through exosomal miRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrdad Hajinejad
- Student Research Committee, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Sajad Sahab-Negah
- Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Shefa Neuroscience Research Center, Khatam Alanbia Hospital, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Neuroscience, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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30
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Wang M, Feng LR, Li ZL, Ma KG, Chang KW, Chen XL, Yang PB, Ji SF, Ma YB, Han H, Ruganzua JB, Yang WN, Qian YH. Thymosin β4 reverses phenotypic polarization of glial cells and cognitive impairment via negative regulation of NF-κB signaling axis in APP/PS1 mice. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:146. [PMID: 34183019 PMCID: PMC8240373 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02166-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Thymosin β4 (Tβ4) is the most abundant member of the β-thymosins and plays an important role in the control of actin polymerization in eukaryotic cells. While its effects in multiple organs and diseases are being widely investigated, the safety profile has been established in animals and humans, currently, little is known about its influence on Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and the possible mechanisms. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the effects and mechanisms of Tβ4 on glial polarization and cognitive performance in APP/PS1 transgenic mice. Methods Behavior tests were conducted to assess the learning and memory, anxiety and depression in APP/PS1 mice. Thioflavin S staining, Nissl staining, immunohistochemistry/immunofluorescence, ELISA, qRT-PCR, and immunoblotting were performed to explore Aβ accumulation, phenotypic polarization of glial cells, neuronal loss and function, and TLR4/NF-κB axis in APP/PS1 mice. Results We demonstrated that Tβ4 protein level elevated in all APP/PS1 mice. Over-expression of Tβ4 alone alleviated AD-like phenotypes of APP/PS1 mice, showed less brain Aβ accumulation and more Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), reversed phenotypic polarization of microglia and astrocyte to a healthy state, improved neuronal function and cognitive behavior performance, and accidentally displayed antidepressant-like effect. Besides, Tβ4 could downregulate both TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB p65 and p52-dependent inflammatory pathways in the APP/PS1 mice. While combination drug of TLR4 antagonist TAK242 or NF-κB p65 inhibitor PDTC exerted no further effects. Conclusions These results suggest that Tβ4 may exert its function by regulating both classical and non-canonical NF-κB signaling and is restoring its function as a potential therapeutic target against AD. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02166-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Wang
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Li-Rong Feng
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Zi-Long Li
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Kai-Ge Ma
- Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neurobiology, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Ke-Wei Chang
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xin-Lin Chen
- Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neurobiology, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Peng-Bo Yang
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Sheng-Feng Ji
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yan-Bing Ma
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hua Han
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - John Bosco Ruganzua
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China
| | - Wei-Na Yang
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yi-Hua Qian
- Department of Human Anatomy and Histology-Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China. .,Institute of Neuroscience, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an, China. .,Key Laboratory of Environment and Genes Related to Diseases (Xi'an Jiaotong University), Ministry of Education of China, Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, 76 Yanta West Road, Xi'an, 710061, Shaanxi, China.
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Barcik W, Chiacchierini G, Bimpisidis Z, Papaleo F. Immunology and microbiology: how do they affect social cognition and emotion recognition? Curr Opin Immunol 2021; 71:46-54. [PMID: 34058687 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2021.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Social interactions profoundly influence animals' life. The quality of social interactions and many everyday life decisions are determined by a proper perception, processing and reaction to others' emotions. Notably, alterations in these social processes characterize a number of neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. Increasing evidences support an implication of immune system vulnerability and inflammatory processes in disparate behavioral functions and the aforementioned neurodevelopmental disorders. In this review, we show a possible unifying view on how immune responses, within and outside the brain, and the communication between the immune system and brain responses might influence emotion recognition and related social responses. In particular, we highlight the importance of combining genetics, immunology and microbiology factors in understanding social behaviors. We underline the importance of better disentangling the whole machinery between brain-immune system interactions to better address the complexity of social processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weronika Barcik
- Genetics of Cognition Laboratory, Neuroscience Area, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Giulia Chiacchierini
- Genetics of Cognition Laboratory, Neuroscience Area, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Zisis Bimpisidis
- Genetics of Cognition Laboratory, Neuroscience Area, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Francesco Papaleo
- Genetics of Cognition Laboratory, Neuroscience Area, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy; Fondazione IRCCS Ca'Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milano, Italy.
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32
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Gouveia-Freitas K, Bastos-Leite AJ. Perivascular spaces and brain waste clearance systems: relevance for neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular pathology. Neuroradiology 2021; 63:1581-1597. [PMID: 34019111 PMCID: PMC8460534 DOI: 10.1007/s00234-021-02718-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Perivascular spaces (PVS) of the brain, often called Virchow-Robin spaces, comprise fluid, cells and connective tissue, and are externally limited by astrocytic endfeet. PVS are involved in clearing brain waste and belong to the "glymphatic" system and/or the "intramural periarterial drainage" pathway through the basement membranes of the arteries. Related brain waste clearance systems include the blood-brain barrier, scavenger cells, cerebrospinal fluid, perineural lymphatic drainage pathways and the newly characterised meningeal lymphatic vessels. Any functional abnormality of PVS or related clearance systems might lead to accumulation of brain waste. It has been postulated that PVS enlargement can be secondary to accumulation of β-amyloid. Lack of integrity of the vascular wall, microbleeds, cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and enlarged PVS often occur in the preclinical stages of Alzheimer's disease, preceding substantial brain atrophy. PVS enlargement in the form of état criblé at the basal ganglia has also been considered to reflect focal atrophy, most probably secondary to ischaemic injury, based upon both pathological and imaging arguments. In addition, distinct topographic patterns of enlarged PVS are related to different types of microangiopathy: CAA is linked to enlarged juxtacortical PVS, whereas subjects with vascular risk factors tend to have enlarged PVS in the basal ganglia. Therefore, enlarged PVS are progressively being regarded as a marker of neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular pathology. The present review addresses the evolving concept of PVS and brain waste clearance systems, the potential relevance of their dysfunction to neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular pathology, and potential therapeutic approaches of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylene Gouveia-Freitas
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda do Professor Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
| | - António J Bastos-Leite
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda do Professor Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal.
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33
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Gaur N, Huss E, Prell T, Steinbach R, Guerra J, Srivastava A, Witte OW, Grosskreutz J. Monocyte-Derived Macrophages Contribute to Chitinase Dysregulation in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Pilot Study. Front Neurol 2021; 12:629332. [PMID: 34054686 PMCID: PMC8160083 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.629332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation significantly contributes to Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) pathology. In lieu of this, reports of elevated chitinase levels in ALS are interesting, as they are established surrogate markers of a chronic inflammatory response. While post-mortem studies have indicated glial expression, the cellular sources for these moieties remain to be fully understood. Therefore, the objective of this pilot study was to examine whether the peripheral immune system also contributes to chitinase dysregulation in ALS. The temporal expression of CHIT1, CHI3L1, and CHI3L2 in non-polarized monocyte-derived macrophages (MoMas) from ALS patients and healthy controls (HCs) was examined. We demonstrate that while CHIT1 and CHI3L1 display similar temporal expression dynamics in both groups, profound between-group differences were noted for these targets at later time-points i.e., when cells were fully differentiated. CHIT1 and CHI3L1 expression were significantly higher in MoMas from ALS patients at both the transcriptomic and protein level, with CHI3L1 levels also being influenced by age. Conversely, CHI3L2 expression was not influenced by disease state, culture duration, or age. Here, we demonstrate for the first time, that in ALS, circulating immune cells have an intrinsically augmented potential for chitinase production that may propagate chronic neuroinflammation, and how the ageing immune system itself contributes to neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nayana Gaur
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Elena Huss
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Tino Prell
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Jena Centre for Healthy Ageing, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Robert Steinbach
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Joel Guerra
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Centre for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Akash Srivastava
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Otto W Witte
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Jena Centre for Healthy Ageing, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Julian Grosskreutz
- Hans Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany.,Jena Centre for Healthy Ageing, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
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34
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Maurya SK, Bhattacharya N, Mishra S, Bhattacharya A, Banerjee P, Senapati S, Mishra R. Microglia Specific Drug Targeting Using Natural Products for the Regulation of Redox Imbalance in Neurodegeneration. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:654489. [PMID: 33927630 PMCID: PMC8076853 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.654489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, a type of innate immune cell of the brain, regulates neurogenesis, immunological surveillance, redox imbalance, cognitive and behavioral changes under normal and pathological conditions like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Multiple sclerosis and traumatic brain injury. Microglia produces a wide variety of cytokines to maintain homeostasis. It also participates in synaptic pruning and regulation of neurons overproduction by phagocytosis of neural precursor cells. The phenotypes of microglia are regulated by the local microenvironment of neurons and astrocytes via interaction with both soluble and membrane-bound mediators. In case of neuron degeneration as observed in acute or chronic neurodegenerative diseases, microglia gets released from the inhibitory effect of neurons and astrocytes, showing activated phenotype either of its dual function. Microglia shows neuroprotective effect by secreting growths factors to heal neurons and clears cell debris through phagocytosis in case of a moderate stimulus. But the same microglia starts releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IFN-γ, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and nitric oxide (NO), increasing neuroinflammation and redox imbalance in the brain under chronic signals. Therefore, pharmacological targeting of microglia would be a promising strategy in the regulation of neuroinflammation, redox imbalance and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. Some studies present potentials of natural products like curcumin, resveratrol, cannabidiol, ginsenosides, flavonoids and sulforaphane to suppress activation of microglia. These natural products have also been proposed as effective therapeutics to regulate the progression of neurodegenerative diseases. The present review article intends to explain the molecular mechanisms and functions of microglia and molecular dynamics of microglia specific genes and proteins like Iba1 and Tmem119 in neurodegeneration. The possible interventions by curcumin, resveratrol, cannabidiol, ginsenosides, flavonoids and sulforaphane on microglia specific protein Iba1 suggest possibility of natural products mediated regulation of microglia phenotypes and its functions to control redox imbalance and neuroinflammation in management of Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Multiple Sclerosis for microglia-mediated therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Neetu Bhattacharya
- Department of Zoology, Dyal Singh College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Suman Mishra
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, SGPGI, Lucknow, India
| | - Amit Bhattacharya
- Department of Zoology, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Pratibha Banerjee
- Immunogenomics Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics & Molecular Medicine, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Sabyasachi Senapati
- Immunogenomics Laboratory, Department of Human Genetics & Molecular Medicine, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, India
| | - Rajnikant Mishra
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Giordano C, Sabatino G, Romano S, Della Pepa GM, Tufano M, D’Alessandris QG, Cottonaro S, Gessi M, Balducci M, Romano MF, Olivi A, Gaudino S, Colosimo C. Combining Magnetic Resonance Imaging with Systemic Monocyte Evaluation for the Implementation of GBM Management. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073797. [PMID: 33917598 PMCID: PMC8038816 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the gold standard for glioblastoma (GBM) patient evaluation. Additional non-invasive diagnostic modalities are needed. GBM is heavily infiltrated with tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) that can be found in peripheral blood. FKBP51s supports alternative-macrophage polarization. Herein, we assessed FKBP51s expression in circulating monocytes from 14 GBM patients. The M2 monocyte phenotype was investigated by qPCR and flow cytometry using antibodies against PD-L1, CD163, FKBP51s, and CD14. MRI assessed morphologic features of the tumors that were aligned to flow cytometry data. PD-L1 expression on circulating monocytes correlated with MRI tumor necrosis score. A wider expansion in circulating CD163/monocytes was measured. These monocytes resulted in a dramatic decrease in patients with an MRI diagnosis of complete but not partial surgical removal of the tumor. Importantly, in patients with residual tumor, most of the peripheral monocytes that in the preoperative stage were CD163/FKBP51s- had turned into CD163/FKBP51s+. After Stupp therapy, CD163/FKBP51s+ monocytes were almost absent in a case of pseudoprogression, while two patients with stable or true disease progression showed sustained levels in such circulating monocytes. Our work provides preliminary but meaningful and novel results that deserve to be confirmed in a larger patient cohort, in support of potential usefulness in GBM monitoring of CD163/FKBP51s/CD14 immunophenotype in adjunct to MRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Giordano
- UOC Radiodiagnostica e Neuroradiologia, Istituto di Radiologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (C.G.); (S.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.)
| | - Giovanni Sabatino
- UOC Neurochirurgia, Istituto di Neurochirurgia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.S.); (G.M.D.P.); (Q.G.D.); (A.O.)
- UOC of Neurochirurgia “Ospedale Mater Olbia”, 07026 Olbia, Italy
| | - Simona Romano
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università di Napoli Federico II, Via Pansini, 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy; (S.R.); (M.T.)
| | - Giuseppe Maria Della Pepa
- UOC Neurochirurgia, Istituto di Neurochirurgia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.S.); (G.M.D.P.); (Q.G.D.); (A.O.)
| | - Martina Tufano
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università di Napoli Federico II, Via Pansini, 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy; (S.R.); (M.T.)
| | - Quintino Giorgio D’Alessandris
- UOC Neurochirurgia, Istituto di Neurochirurgia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.S.); (G.M.D.P.); (Q.G.D.); (A.O.)
| | - Simone Cottonaro
- UOC Radiodiagnostica e Neuroradiologia, Istituto di Radiologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (C.G.); (S.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.)
| | - Marco Gessi
- UOS di Neuropatologia, UOC Anatomia Patologica, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy;
| | - Mario Balducci
- UOC di Radioterapia Oncologica, Dipartimento di Diagnostica per Immagini, Radioterapia Oncologica ed Ematologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy;
| | - Maria Fiammetta Romano
- Dipartimento di Medicina Molecolare e Biotecnologie Mediche, Università di Napoli Federico II, Via Pansini, 5, 80131 Napoli, Italy; (S.R.); (M.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-081-7463200; Fax: +39-081-7463205
| | - Alessandro Olivi
- UOC Neurochirurgia, Istituto di Neurochirurgia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (G.S.); (G.M.D.P.); (Q.G.D.); (A.O.)
| | - Simona Gaudino
- UOC Radiodiagnostica e Neuroradiologia, Istituto di Radiologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (C.G.); (S.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.)
| | - Cesare Colosimo
- UOC Radiodiagnostica e Neuroradiologia, Istituto di Radiologia, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A.Gemelli” IRCCS, Università Cattolica S.Cuore, 00168 Roma, Italy; (C.G.); (S.C.); (S.G.); (C.C.)
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Guo K, Ma S. The Immune System in Transfusion-Related Acute Lung Injury Prevention and Therapy: Update and Perspective. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:639976. [PMID: 33842545 PMCID: PMC8024523 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.639976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
As an initiator of respiratory distress, transfusion-related acute lung injury (TRALI) is regarded as one of the rare complications associated with transfusion medicine. However, to date, the pathogenesis of TRALI is still unclear, and specific therapies are unavailable. Understanding the mechanisms of TRALI may promote the design of preventive and therapeutic strategies. The immune system plays vital roles in reproduction, development and homeostasis. Sterile tissue damage, such as physical trauma, ischemia, or reperfusion injury, induces an inflammatory reaction that results in wound healing and regenerative mechanisms. In other words, in addition to protecting against pathogens, the immune response may be strongly associated with TRALI prevention and treatment through a variety of immunomodulatory strategies to inhibit excessive immune system activation. Immunotherapy based on immune cells or immunological targets may eradicate complications. For example, IL-10 therapy is a promising therapeutic strategy to explore further. This review will focus on ultramodern advances in our understanding of the potential role of the immune system in TRALI prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Guo
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing, China
| | - Shuxuan Ma
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Center for Children's Health, Beijing, China
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Duan K, Liu S, Yi Z, Liu H, Li J, Shi J, Ji L, Xu B, Zhang X, Zhang W. S100-β aggravates spinal cord injury via activation of M1 macrophage phenotype. JOURNAL OF MUSCULOSKELETAL & NEURONAL INTERACTIONS 2021; 21:401-412. [PMID: 34465680 PMCID: PMC8426655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES S100-β has been identified as a sensitive biomarker in central nervous system injuries. However, the functions and mechanisms of S100-β are unknown in spinal cord injury. METHODS Spinal cord injury (SCI) mouse model was generated by surgical operation, microglia activation model was established by inducing BV-2 cells with LPS. The SCI model was evaluated by Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan (BBB) behavioral score, HE staining, and Nissl staining. The expression level of S100-β was detected by qRT-PCR, western blot, and immunofluorescence. qRT-PCR and western blot were used to detect the expression of iNOS and CD16. Pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β levels were detected by qRT-PCR and ELISA. RESULTS The expression of IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS, and CD16 increased at 3rd day after SCI. In BV2 microglia, LPS treatment promoted the expression of S100-β, IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS, and CD16. Knockdown of S100-β reduced the expression of iNOS stimulated by LPS. Over-expression of S100-β increased IL-1β and TNF-α, and S100-β inhibition suppressed IL-1β and TNF-α. In SCI mice, knockdown of S100-β attenuated the spinal cord injury and inhibited the expression of iNOS, IL-1β, and TNF-α. CONCLUSIONS Down-regulation of S100-β could inhibit the pathogenesis of SCI and inhibit the activation of M1 macrophages. S100-β may be a useful diagnostic biomarker or therapeutic target for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keke Duan
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shizhang Liu
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China,Corresponding author: Shizhang Liu, Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, No.256 Youyi West Road, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710068, China E-mail:
| | - Zhi Yi
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Huitong Liu
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jingyuan Li
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiyuan Shi
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Le Ji
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Bingqiang Xu
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaoxia Zhang
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Shaanxi Provincial People’s Hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, Beilin District, Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
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Zhuang H, Yang J, Huang Z, Liu H, Li X, Zhang H, Wang J, Yu S, Liu K, Liu R, Bi M, Wang J, Salvi RJ, Hu B, Teng G, Liu L. Accelerated age-related decline in hippocampal neurogenesis in mice with noise-induced hearing loss is associated with hippocampal microglial degeneration. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:19493-19519. [PMID: 33041264 PMCID: PMC7732316 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Large-scale epidemiological surveys suggest that hearing loss (HL) is a significant risk factor for dementia. We previously showed that noise-induced HL (NIHL) impairs hippocampal cognitive function and decreases hippocampal neurogenesis and neuronal complexity, suggesting a causal role of HL in dementia. To further investigate the influence of acquired peripheral HL on hippocampal neurogenesis with the aging process as well as the underlying mechanism, we produced NIHL in male CBA/J mice and assessed hippocampal neurogenesis and microglial morphology in the auditory brain and hippocampus at 4 days post-noise exposure (DPN) or 1, 3, 6, or 12 months post-noise exposure (MPN) by immunofluorescence labeling. We found that the age-related decline in hippocampal neurogenesis was accelerated in mice with NIHL. Furthermore, in mice with NIHL, prolonged microglial activation occurred from 1 MPN to 12 MPN across multiple auditory nuclei, while aggravated microglial deterioration occurred in the hippocampus and correlated with the age-related decline in hippocampal neurogenesis. These results suggest that acquired peripheral HL accelerates the age-related decline in hippocampal neurogenesis and that hippocampal microglial degeneration may contribute to the development of neurodegeneration following acquired peripheral HL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhuang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Zhihui Huang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Haiqing Liu
- Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Xiaobo Li
- Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Hongyu Zhang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Jiadong Wang
- Medical College, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Shen Yu
- Medical College, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Kefei Liu
- Kangda College of Nanjing Medical University, Lianyungang 222000, China
| | - Rui Liu
- Medical College, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Mingze Bi
- Medical College, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jian Wang
- School of Human Communication Disorder, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Richard J. Salvi
- Center for Hearing and Deafness, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Bohua Hu
- Center for Hearing and Deafness, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA
| | - Gaojun Teng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Functional Imaging, Department of Radiology, Zhongda Hospital, Medical School, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Lijie Liu
- Department of Physiology, Medical College, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
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Sariol A, Mackin S, Allred MG, Ma C, Zhou Y, Zhang Q, Zou X, Abrahante JE, Meyerholz DK, Perlman S. Microglia depletion exacerbates demyelination and impairs remyelination in a neurotropic coronavirus infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:24464-24474. [PMID: 32929007 PMCID: PMC7533697 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2007814117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are considered both pathogenic and protective during recovery from demyelination, but their precise role remains ill defined. Here, using an inhibitor of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), PLX5622, and mice infected with a neurotropic coronavirus (mouse hepatitis virus [MHV], strain JHMV), we show that depletion of microglia during the time of JHMV clearance resulted in impaired myelin repair and prolonged clinical disease without affecting the kinetics of virus clearance. Microglia were required only during the early stages of remyelination. Notably, large deposits of extracellular vesiculated myelin and cellular debris were detected in the spinal cords of PLX5622-treated and not control mice, which correlated with decreased numbers of oligodendrocytes in demyelinating lesions in drug-treated mice. Furthermore, gene expression analyses demonstrated differential expression of genes involved in myelin debris clearance, lipid and cholesterol recycling, and promotion of oligodendrocyte function. The results also demonstrate that microglial functions affected by depletion could not be compensated by infiltrating macrophages. Together, these results demonstrate that microglia play key roles in debris clearance and in the initiation of remyelination following infection with a neurotropic coronavirus but are not necessary during later stages of remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan Sariol
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Samantha Mackin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Merri-Grace Allred
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
| | - Chen Ma
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Yu Zhou
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Qinran Zhang
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Xiufen Zou
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China
| | - Juan E Abrahante
- University of Minnesota Informatics Institute (UMII), Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | | | - Stanley Perlman
- Interdisciplinary Program in Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242;
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242
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Karlen SJ, Miller EB, Burns ME. Microglia Activation and Inflammation During the Death of Mammalian Photoreceptors. Annu Rev Vis Sci 2020; 6:149-169. [PMID: 32936734 PMCID: PMC10135402 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-vision-121219-081730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Photoreceptors are highly specialized sensory neurons with unique metabolic and physiological requirements. These requirements are partially met by Müller glia and cells of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which provide essential metabolites, phagocytose waste, and control the composition of the surrounding microenvironment. A third vital supporting cell type, the retinal microglia, can provide photoreceptors with neurotrophic support or exacerbate neuroinflammation and hasten neuronal cell death. Understanding the physiological requirements for photoreceptor homeostasis and the factors that drive microglia to best promote photoreceptor survival has important implications for the treatment and prevention of blinding degenerative diseases like retinitis pigmentosa and age-related macular degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J. Karlen
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Eric B. Miller
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
| | - Marie E. Burns
- Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
- Department of Ophthalmology & Vision Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Microglia Activation in Retinal Ischemia Triggers Cytokine and Toll-Like Receptor Response. J Mol Neurosci 2020; 71:527-544. [PMID: 32833183 PMCID: PMC8575759 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-020-01674-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Mechanisms and progression of ischemic injuries in the retina are still incompletely clarified. Therefore, the time course of microglia activation as well as resulting cytokine expression and downstream signaling were investigated. Ischemia was induced in one eye by transiently elevated intraocular pressure (60 min) followed by reperfusion; the other eye served as a control. Eyes were processed for RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry analyses at 2, 6, 12, and 24 h as well as at 3 and 7 days. Already 2 h after ischemia, more microglia/macrophages were in an active state in the ischemia group. This was accompanied by an upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, like IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, and TGFβ. Activation of TLR3, TLR2, and the adaptor molecule Myd88 was also observed after 2 h. NFκB revealed a wave-like activation pattern. In addition, an extrinsic caspase pathway activation was noted at early time points, while enhanced numbers of cleaved caspase 3+ cells could be observed in ischemic retinae throughout the study. Retinal ischemia induced an early and strong microglia/macrophage response as well as cytokine and apoptotic activation processes. Moreover, in early and late ischemic damaging processes, TLR expression and downstream signaling were involved, suggesting an involvement in neuronal death in ischemic retinae. Graphical Abstract.
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Chen Z, Herting CJ, Ross JL, Gabanic B, Puigdelloses Vallcorba M, Szulzewsky F, Wojciechowicz ML, Cimino PJ, Ezhilarasan R, Sulman EP, Ying M, Ma'ayan A, Read RD, Hambardzumyan D. Genetic driver mutations introduced in identical cell-of-origin in murine glioblastoma reveal distinct immune landscapes but similar response to checkpoint blockade. Glia 2020; 68:2148-2166. [PMID: 32639068 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive primary brain tumor. In addition to being genetically heterogeneous, GBMs are also immunologically heterogeneous. However, whether the differences in immune microenvironment are driven by genetic driver mutation is unexplored. By leveraging the versatile RCAS/tv-a somatic gene transfer system, we establish a mouse model for Classical GBM by introducing EGFRvIII expression in Nestin-positive neural stem/progenitor cells in adult mice. Along with our previously published Nf1-silenced and PDGFB-overexpressing models, we investigate the immune microenvironments of the three models of human GBM subtypes by unbiased multiplex profiling. We demonstrate that both the quantity and composition of the microenvironmental myeloid cells are dictated by the genetic driver mutations, closely mimicking what was observed in human GBM subtypes. These myeloid cells express high levels of the immune checkpoint protein PD-L1; however, PD-L1 targeted therapies alone or in combination with irradiation are unable to increase the survival time of tumor-bearing mice regardless of the driver mutations, reflecting the outcomes of recent human trials. Together, these results highlight the critical utility of immunocompetent mouse models for preclinical studies of GBM, making these models indispensable tools for understanding the resistance mechanisms of immune checkpoint blockade in GBM and immune cell-targeting drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihong Chen
- Department of Oncological Sciences, The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Cameron J Herting
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Graduate Division of Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - James L Ross
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Ben Gabanic
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Montse Puigdelloses Vallcorba
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Health Research Institute of Navarra (IDISNA), Pamplona, Navarra, Spain.,Program of Solid Tumors, Center for the Applied Medical Research (CIMA), Pamplona, Navarra, Spain.,Department of Neurology, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain
| | - Frank Szulzewsky
- Department of Human Biology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Megan L Wojciechowicz
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Bioinformatics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Patrick J Cimino
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Ravesanker Ezhilarasan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA.,Brain and Spine Tumor Center, Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, New York, USA
| | - Erik P Sulman
- Department of Radiation Oncology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York, USA.,Brain and Spine Tumor Center, Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, New York, USA
| | - Mingyao Ying
- Department of Neurology, Kennedy Krieger Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Avi Ma'ayan
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Bioinformatics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA
| | - Renee D Read
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory Usniversity School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Dolores Hambardzumyan
- Department of Oncological Sciences, The Tisch Cancer Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta and Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Bosco DB, Tian DS, Wu LJ. Neuroimmune interaction in seizures and epilepsy: focusing on monocyte infiltration. FEBS J 2020; 287:4822-4837. [PMID: 32473609 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Epilepsy is a major neurological condition that affects millions of people globally. While a number of interventions have been developed to mitigate this condition, a significant number of patients are refractory to these treatments. Consequently, other avenues of research are needed. One such avenue is modulation of the immune system response to this condition, which has mostly focused on microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS). However, other immune cells can impact neurological conditions, principally blood-borne monocytes that can infiltrate into brain parenchyma after seizures. As such, this review will first discuss how monocytes can be recruited to the CNS and how they can be distinguished from there immunological cousins, microglia. Then, we will explore what is known about the role monocytes have within seizure pathogenesis and epilepsy. Considering how little is known about monocyte function in seizure- and epilepsy-related pathologies, further studies are warranted that investigate infiltrated blood-borne monocytes as a potential therapeutic target for epilepsy treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale B Bosco
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Dai-Shi Tian
- Department of Neurology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Long-Jun Wu
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.,Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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Why do anti-inflammatory signals of bone marrow-derived stromal cells improve neurodegenerative conditions where anti-inflammatory drugs fail? J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2020; 127:715-727. [PMID: 32253536 PMCID: PMC7242250 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-020-02173-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders share the final degenerative pathway, the inflammation-induced apoptosis and/or necrosis, irrespective of their etiology, be it of acute and chronic traumatic, vascular and idiopathic origin. Although disease-modifying strategies are an unmet need in these disorders, lately, (pre)clinical studies suggested favorable effects after an intervention with bone marrow-derived stromal cells (bm-SC). Recent interventions with intrathecal transplantation of these cells in preclinical rodent models improved the functional outcome and reduced the inflammation, but not anti-inflammatory drugs. The benefit of bm-SCs was demonstrated in rats with an acute (traumatic spinal cord injury, tSCI) and in mice with a chronic [amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-like FUS 1-358 or SOD1-G93-A mutation] neurodegenerative process. Bm-SCs, were found to modify underlying disease processes, to reduce final clinical SCI-related outcome, and to slow down ALS-like clinical progression. After double-blind interventions with bm-SC transplantations, Vehicle (placebo), and (non)steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (Methylprednisolone, Riluzole, Celecoxib), clinical, histological and histochemical findings, serum/spinal cytokines, markers for spinal microglial activation inclusive, evidenced the cell-to-cell action of bm-SCs in both otherwise healthy and immune-deficient tSCI-rats, as well as wild-type and FUS/SOD1-transgenic ALS-like mice. The multi-pathway hypothesis of the cell-to-cell action of bmSCs, presumably using extracellular vesicles (EVs) as carriers of messages in the form of RNAs, DNA, proteins, and lipids rather than influencing a single inflammatory pathway, could be justified by the reported differences of cytokines and other chemokines in the serum and spinal tissue. The mode of action of bm-SCs is hypothesized to be associated with its dedicated adjustment of the pro-apoptotic glycogen synthase kinase-3β level towards an anti-apoptotic level whereas their multi-pathway hypothesis seems to be confirmed by the decreased levels of the pro-inflammatory interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) as well as the level of the marker of activated microglia, ionized calcium binding adapter (Iba)-1 level.
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Carregosa D, Carecho R, Figueira I, N Santos C. Low-Molecular Weight Metabolites from Polyphenols as Effectors for Attenuating Neuroinflammation. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:1790-1807. [PMID: 31241945 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b02155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Age-associated pathophysiological changes such as neurodegenerative diseases are multifactorial conditions with increasing incidence and no existing cure. The possibility of altering the progression and development of these multifactorial diseases through diet is an attractive approach with increasing supporting data. Epidemiological and clinical studies have highlighted the health potential of diets rich in fruits and vegetables. Such food sources are rich in (poly)phenols, natural compounds increasingly associated with health benefits, having the potential to prevent or retard the development of various diseases. However, absorption and the blood concentration of (poly)phenols is very low when compared with their corresponding (poly)phenolic metabolites. Therefore, these serum-bioavailable metabolites are much more promising candidates to overcome cellular barriers and reach target tissues, such as the brain. Bearing this in mind, it will be reviewed that the molecular mechanisms underlying (poly)phenolic metabolites effects, range from 0.1 to <50 μM and their role on neuroinflammation, a central hallmark in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Carregosa
- CEDOC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
- iBET , Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica , Avenida da República, Apartado 12 , 2781-901 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Rafael Carecho
- CEDOC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Avenida da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Inês Figueira
- iBET , Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica , Avenida da República, Apartado 12 , 2781-901 Oeiras , Portugal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Avenida da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
| | - Cláudia N Santos
- CEDOC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
- iBET , Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica , Avenida da República, Apartado 12 , 2781-901 Oeiras , Portugal
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier , Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Avenida da República , 2780-157 Oeiras , Portugal
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Duarte Azevedo M, Sander S, Tenenbaum L. GDNF, A Neuron-Derived Factor Upregulated in Glial Cells during Disease. J Clin Med 2020; 9:E456. [PMID: 32046031 PMCID: PMC7073520 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9020456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In a healthy adult brain, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is exclusively expressed by neurons, and, in some instances, it has also been shown to derive from a single neuronal subpopulation. Secreted GDNF acts in a paracrine fashion by forming a complex with the GDNF family receptor α1 (GFRα1), which is mainly expressed by neurons and can act in cis as a membrane-bound factor or in trans as a soluble factor. The GDNF/GFRα1 complex signals through interactions with the "rearranged during transfection" (RET) receptor or via the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) with a lower affinity. GDNF can also signal independently from GFRα1 by interacting with syndecan-3. RET, which is expressed by neurons involved in several pathways (nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons, motor neurons, enteric neurons, sensory neurons, etc.), could be the main determinant of the specificity of GDNF's pro-survival effect. In an injured brain, de novo expression of GDNF occurs in glial cells. Neuroinflammation has been reported to induce GDNF expression in activated astrocytes and microglia, infiltrating macrophages, nestin-positive reactive astrocytes, and neuron/glia (NG2) positive microglia-like cells. This disease-related GDNF overexpression can be either beneficial or detrimental depending on the localization in the brain and the level and duration of glial cell activation. Some reports also describe the upregulation of RET and GFRα1 in glial cells, suggesting that GDNF could modulate neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Liliane Tenenbaum
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurotherapies and NeuroModulation, Center for Neuroscience Research, Lausanne University Hospital, CHUV-Pavillon 3, av de Beaumont, CH-1010 Lausanne, Switzerland; (M.D.A.); (S.S.)
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Heras-Garvin A, Refolo V, Reindl M, Wenning GK, Stefanova N. High-salt diet does not boost neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in a model of α-synucleinopathy. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:35. [PMID: 31980040 PMCID: PMC6982394 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-1714-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Pre-clinical studies in models of multiple sclerosis and other inflammatory disorders suggest that high-salt diet may induce activation of the immune system and potentiate inflammation. However, high-salt diet constitutes a common non-pharmacological intervention to treat autonomic problems in synucleinopathies such as Parkinson's disease and multiple system atrophy. Since neuroinflammation plays an important pathogenic role in these neurodegenerative disorders, we asked here whether high-salt diet may aggravate the disease phenotype in a transgenic model of multiple system atrophy. METHODS Nine-month-old PLP-hαSyn and matched wildtype mice received normal or high-salt diet for a period of 3 months. Behavioral, histological, and molecular analyses were performed to evaluate the effect of high-salt diet on motor decline, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration, and α-synuclein accumulation in these mice. RESULTS Brain subregion-specific molecular and histological analyses showed no deleterious effects of high-salt diet on the level of microglial activation. Moreover, neuroinflammation-related cytokines and chemokines, T cell recruitment or astrogliosis were unaffected by high-salt diet exposure. Behavioral testing showed no effect of diet on motor decline. High-salt diet was not related to the deterioration of neurodegeneration or α-synuclein accumulation in PLP-hαSyn mice. CONCLUSIONS Here, we demonstrate that high-salt diet does not aggravate neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in PLP-hαSyn mice. Our findings discard a deleterious pro-neuroinflammatory effect of high-salt diet in multiple system atrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Heras-Garvin
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neurobiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 66, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Violetta Refolo
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neurobiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 66, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Markus Reindl
- Department of Neurology, Neuroimmunology Research Group, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 66, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gregor K Wenning
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neurobiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 66, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Nadia Stefanova
- Department of Neurology, Division of Neurobiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innrain 66, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Bondy SC. Aspects of the immune system that impact brain function. J Neuroimmunol 2020; 340:577167. [PMID: 32000018 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2020.577167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The conditions required for effective immune responses to viral or bacterial organisms and chemicals of exogenous origin and to intrinsic molecules of abnormal configuration, are briefly outlined. This is followed by a discussion of endocrine and environmental factors that can lead to excessive continuation of immune activity and persistent elevation of inflammatory responses. Such disproportionate activity becomes increasingly pronounced with aging and some possible reasons for this are considered. The specific vulnerability of the nervous system to prolonged immune events is involved in several disorders frequently found in the aging brain. In addition of being a target for inflammation associated with neurodegenerative disease, the nervous system is also seriously impacted by systemically widespread immune disturbances since there are several means by which immune information can access the CNS. The activation of glial cells and cells of non-nervous origin that form the basis of immune responses within the brain, can occur in differing modes resulting in widely differing consequences. The events underlying the relatively frequent occurrence of derangement and hyperreactivity of the immune system are considered, and a few potential ways of addressing this common condition are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C Bondy
- Center for Occupational and Environmental Health, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617-1830, USA.
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Pires-Afonso Y, Niclou SP, Michelucci A. Revealing and Harnessing Tumour-Associated Microglia/Macrophage Heterogeneity in Glioblastoma. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E689. [PMID: 31973030 PMCID: PMC7037936 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract: Cancer heterogeneity and progression are subject to complex interactions between neoplastic cells and their microenvironment, including the immune system. Although glioblastomas (GBMs) are classified as 'cold tumours' with very little lymphocyte infiltration, they can contain up to 30-40% of tumour-associated macrophages, reported to contribute to a supportive microenvironment that facilitates tumour proliferation, survival and migration. In GBM, tumour-associated macrophages comprise either resident parenchymal microglia, perivascular macrophages or peripheral monocyte-derived cells. They are recruited by GBMs and in turn release growth factors and cytokines that affect the tumour. Notably, tumour-associated microglia/macrophages (TAMs) acquire different expression programs, which shape the tumour microenvironment and contribute to GBM molecular subtyping. Further, emerging evidence highlights that TAM programs may adapt to specific tumour features and landscapes. Here, we review key evidence describing TAM transcriptional and functional heterogeneity in GBM. We propose that unravelling the intricate complexity and diversity of the myeloid compartment as well as understanding how different TAM subsets may affect tumour progression will possibly pave the way to new immune therapeutic avenues for GBM patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yolanda Pires-Afonso
- Neuro-Immunology Group, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, L-1526 Luxembourg, Luxembourg;
- Doctoral School of Science and Technology, University of Luxembourg, L-4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Simone P. Niclou
- NORLUX Neuro-Oncology Laboratory, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, L-1526 Luxembourg, Luxembourg;
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Alessandro Michelucci
- Neuro-Immunology Group, Department of Oncology, Luxembourg Institute of Health, L-1526 Luxembourg, Luxembourg;
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine, University of Luxembourg, L-4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
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Microglia Mediated Neuroinflammation: Focus on PI3K Modulation. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10010137. [PMID: 31947676 PMCID: PMC7022557 DOI: 10.3390/biom10010137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune activation in the central nervous system involves mostly microglia in response to pathogen invasion or tissue damage, which react, promoting a self-limiting inflammatory response aimed to restore homeostasis. However, prolonged, uncontrolled inflammation may result in the production by microglia of neurotoxic factors that lead to the amplification of the disease state and tissue damage. In particular, specific inducers of inflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases activate inflammatory processes that result in the production of a number of mediators and cytokines that enhance neurodegenerative processes. Phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks) constitute a family of enzymes regulating a wide range of activity, including signal transduction. Recent studies have focused attention on the intracellular role of PI3K and its contribution to neurodegenerative processes. This review illustrates and discusses recent findings about the role of this signaling pathway in the modulation of microglia neuroinflammatory responses linked to neurodegeneration. Finally, we discuss the modulation of PI3K as a potential therapeutic approach helpful for developing innovative therapeutic strategies in neurodegenerative diseases.
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